UPSC Optional Notes

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Vision Abhyaas decoded with pure logic 🧠🔥 By Girish Sir (148 in Prelims | 6 Mains | 2 Interviews) No tukka. No guesswork. Only Only Logics & clarity.... This is Part of our TBT Course — more tests (Abhyaas + NEXT IAS Anubhav) coming soon!. https://youtu.be/7v9XmaBdTuw Course link - https://www.northstarias.com/courses/818259

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*🛡️Hydrogels* ♟️Hydrogels are three-dimensional networks of water-soluble polymers that can absorb and retain a large amount of water without losing their structural integrity. ♟️They are super-soft and transparent materials that can shrink or swell when exposed to water. ♟️Hydrogels are made by crosslinking polymer chains through chemical reactions. ♟️Poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (pHEMA): This was the first hydrogel material used in contact lenses, offering flexibility and comfort. ♟️Silicone Hydrogel Lenses: These are a variation of hydrogel lenses that improve oxygen permeability, allowing for extended wear and increased comfort. ♟️Modified Hydrogels: These are hydrogels that have been modified to enhance their properties, such as increasing water content and oxygen permeability.

*🛡️Space Debris* ♟️Space Debris (also called space junk or orbital debris) refers to all man-made objects in space that are no longer useful but still orbit the Earth. *💎Main Sources* *♟️1. Defunct satellites –* Old satellites that no longer work. *♟️2. Rocket parts –* Stages or fragments left behind after launches. *♟️3. Collision fragments –* Pieces created when satellites or rockets collide. *♟️4. Mission-related objects –* Bolts, metal pieces, or tools left during missions. *💎Dangers* *♟️Damage to active satellites –* Debris can crash into working satellites. *♟️Risk to astronauts –* Even tiny fragments can harm the International Space Station (ISS). *♟️Kessler Syndrome –* A chain reaction where collisions create more debris, making space too dangerous. *💎Solutions* *♟️Graveyard orbit or re-entry –* Moving old satellites into a safer orbit or burning them up in Earth’s atmosphere. *♟️Active Debris Removal (ADR) –* Using nets, robotic arms, or lasers to clear junk. *♟️New space rules –* Agencies now design missions to reduce future debris. *♟️In Short,* space debris = old satellites + rocket parts + fragments that make space operations risky.

🛡️ *Significance Of Fundamental Duties* ♟️They serve as a reminder to the citizens that while enjoying their rights, they should also be conscious of duties they owe to their country, their society and to their fellow citizens. ♟️They serve as a warning against the anti-national and anti-social activities like burning the national flag, destroying public property and so on. ♟️They serve as a source of inspiration for the citizens and promote a sense of discipline and commitment among them. ♟️They help the courts in examining and determining the constitutional validity of a law. ♟️They are enforceable by law. Hence, the Parliament can provide for the imposition of appropriate penalty or punishment for failure to fulfil any of them.

*🛡️Important case laws related to Constitution of India:* *1 S.R.Bommai v.UOI:* (1994) Federalism I Secularism Artilcle 356 and floor test. S. R. Bommai case was a landmark judgment of the Supreme Court of India, where the Court discussed provisions of Article 356 of the Constitution of India and related issues. This case had a huge impact on Centre-State Relations. The judgement attempted to curb misuse of Article 356 of the Constitution of India, which allowed President's rule to be imposed on state governments. *2 Samsher Singh v. State of punjab: (1974)* Function of President/Governor with aid and advice of Council of Ministers *3 Maneka Gandhi v. UOI: (1978)* Article 21 Right to travel abroad (Article 14, 19 and 21) *4 Indra Sawhney v. UOI: (1992)* SCC - Mandal Commission *5 C. Golaknath case (1967):* Validity of the First and Seventeenth Amendments and described the scope of Article 13 *6 Kesvananda Bharti case (1973):* Basic Structure of the Indian Constitution *7 Menaka Gandhi case (1978):* Significant towards the transformation of the judicial review *8 Waman Rao Case (1981):* Validity of 9th Schedule.

*🛡️Question Hour* ♟️The first hour of every parliamentary sitting is slotted for this. ♟️During this time, the members ask questions and the ministers usually give answers. The questions are of three kinds, namely, starred, unstarred and short notice. ♟️A starred question (distinguished by an asterisk) requires an oral answer and hence supplementary questions can follow. ♟️An unstarred question, on the other hand, requires a written answer and hence, supplementary questions cannot follow. ♟️A short notice question is one that is asked by giving a notice of less than ten days. It is answered orally.

*🛡️Countries Along the Tropics & Equator with Mnemonics* *💎Tropic of Cancer (16 Countries)* *💎Mnemonic:- ESTONIA WC plays BBL in MMMMU* ♟️Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, Oman, Niger, India, Algeria, Western Sahara, China, Bangladesh, Bahamas, Libya, Mali, Myanmar, Mexico, Mauritania, UAE. *💎Tropic of Capricorn (10 Countries)* *💎Mnemonic:- CAB PNB Se Mumbai Aai* ♟️Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar, Australia. *💎Equator (13 Countries)* *💎Mnemonic:- ECB SaoTomo GCC UKS MIKi* ♟️Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Sao Tome & Principe, Gabon, Republic of Congo, DR Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Maldives, Indonesia, Kiribati. > *_Hit 👍🏻❤️ To Appreciate Our Consistent Efforts_*