Data Science & Machine Learning

1. For the given points, how will you calculate the Euclidean distance in Python? plot1 = [1,3] plot2 = [2,5] The Euclidean distance can be calculated as follows: euclidean_distance = sqrt( (plot1[0]-plot2[0])*2 + (plot1[1]-plot2[1])*2 ) 2.Which of the following machine learning algorithms can be used for inputting missing values of both categorical and continuous variables? K-means clustering Linear regression K-NN (k-nearest neighbor) Decision trees The K nearest neighbor algorithm can be used because it can compute the nearest neighbor and if it doesn't have a value, it just computes the nearest neighbor based on all the other features. When you're dealing with K-means clustering or linear regression, you need to do that in your pre-processing, otherwise, they'll crash. Decision trees also have the same problem, although there is some variance. 3.How are confidence tests and hypothesis tests similar? How are they different? Confidence intervals and hypothesis testing are both tools used for to make statistical inferences. The confidence interval suggests a range of values for an unknown parameter and is then associated with a confidence level that the true parameter is within the suggested range of. Confidence intervals are often very important in medical research to provide researchers with a stronger basis for their estimations. A confidence interval can be shown as “10 +/- 0.5” or [9.5, 10.5] to give an example. Hypothesis testing is the basis of any research question and often comes down to trying to prove something did not happen by chance. For example, you could try to prove when rolling a dye, one number was more likely to come up than the rest. 4. What is the difference between observational and experimental data? Observational data comes from observational studies which are when you observe certain variables and try to determine if there is any correlation. Experimental data comes from experimental studies which are when you control certain variables and hold them constant to determine if there is any causality. An example of experimental design is the following: split a group up into two. The control group lives their lives normally. The test group is told to drink a glass of wine every night for 30 days. Then research can be conducted to see how wine affects sleep. ENJOY LEARNING 👍👍

Top free Data Science resources @datasciencefun 1. CS109 Data Science http://cs109.github.io/2015/pages/videos.html 2. Data Science Essentials https://www.edx.org/course/data-science-essentials 3. Learning From Data from California Institute of Technology http://work.caltech.edu/telecourse 4. Mathematics for Machine Learning by University of California, Berkeley https://gwthomas.github.io/docs/math4ml.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2UsBgZW9MRgS3nEo8Zh_ukUFnwtFeQS8Ek3OjGxZtDa7UxTYgIs_9pzSI 5. Foundations of Data Science by Avrim Blum, John Hopcroft, and Ravindran Kannan https://www.cs.cornell.edu/jeh/book.pdf?fbclid=IwAR19tDrnNh8OxAU1S-tPklL1mqj-51J1EJUHmcHIu2y6yEv5ugrWmySI2WY 6. Python Data Science Handbook https://jakevdp.github.io/PythonDataScienceHandbook/?fbclid=IwAR34IRk2_zZ0ht7-8w5rz13N6RP54PqjarQw1PTpbMqKnewcwRy0oJ-Q4aM 7. CS 221 ― Artificial Intelligence https://stanford.edu/~shervine/teaching/cs-221/ 8. Ten Lectures and Forty-Two Open Problems in the Mathematics of Data Science https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/mathematics/18-s096-topics-in-mathematics-of-data-science-fall-2015/lecture-notes/MIT18_S096F15_TenLec.pdf 9. Python for Data Analysis by Boston University https://www.bu.edu/tech/files/2017/09/Python-for-Data-Analysis.pptx 10. Data Mining bu University of Buffalo https://cedar.buffalo.edu/~srihari/CSE626/index.html?fbclid=IwAR3XZ50uSZAb3u5BP1Qz68x13_xNEH8EdEBQC9tmGEp1BoxLNpZuBCtfMSE Share the channel link with friends http://t.me/datasciencefun

【EU_Exchange】 AI-GPT company recruits HR manager You only need a phone to work from home Age 25 and above Monthly salary $1,800 to $5,000 Main job: 1. Help the company recruit personnel 2. Promote the company's AI smart products 3. If successfully admitted, you may receive a reward of $30+20 4. Telegram channel: https://t.me/EUExchangevip 5. Online customer service: https://chatlink.wchatlink.com/widget/standalone.html?eid=f55ff528d770d699c2cc389645f3577a&language=en

Some useful PYTHON libraries for data science NumPy stands for Numerical Python. The most powerful feature of NumPy is n-dimensional array. This library also contains basic linear algebra functions, Fourier transforms,  advanced random number capabilities and tools for integration with other low level languages like Fortran, C and C++ SciPy stands for Scientific Python. SciPy is built on NumPy. It is one of the most useful library for variety of high level science and engineering modules like discrete Fourier transform, Linear Algebra, Optimization and Sparse matrices. Matplotlib for plotting vast variety of graphs, starting from histograms to line plots to heat plots.. You can use Pylab feature in ipython notebook (ipython notebook –pylab = inline) to use these plotting features inline. If you ignore the inline option, then pylab converts ipython environment to an environment, very similar to Matlab. You can also use Latex commands to add math to your plot. Pandas for structured data operations and manipulations. It is extensively used for data munging and preparation. Pandas were added relatively recently to Python and have been instrumental in boosting Python’s usage in data scientist community. Scikit Learn for machine learning. Built on NumPy, SciPy and matplotlib, this library contains a lot of efficient tools for machine learning and statistical modeling including classification, regression, clustering and dimensionality reduction. Statsmodels for statistical modeling. Statsmodels is a Python module that allows users to explore data, estimate statistical models, and perform statistical tests. An extensive list of descriptive statistics, statistical tests, plotting functions, and result statistics are available for different types of data and each estimator. Seaborn for statistical data visualization. Seaborn is a library for making attractive and informative statistical graphics in Python. It is based on matplotlib. Seaborn aims to make visualization a central part of exploring and understanding data. Bokeh for creating interactive plots, dashboards and data applications on modern web-browsers. It empowers the user to generate elegant and concise graphics in the style of D3.js. Moreover, it has the capability of high-performance interactivity over very large or streaming datasets. Blaze for extending the capability of Numpy and Pandas to distributed and streaming datasets. It can be used to access data from a multitude of sources including Bcolz, MongoDB, SQLAlchemy, Apache Spark, PyTables, etc. Together with Bokeh, Blaze can act as a very powerful tool for creating effective visualizations and dashboards on huge chunks of data. Scrapy for web crawling. It is a very useful framework for getting specific patterns of data. It has the capability to start at a website home url and then dig through web-pages within the website to gather information. SymPy for symbolic computation. It has wide-ranging capabilities from basic symbolic arithmetic to calculus, algebra, discrete mathematics and quantum physics. Another useful feature is the capability of formatting the result of the computations as LaTeX code. Requests for accessing the web. It works similar to the the standard python library urllib2 but is much easier to code. You will find subtle differences with urllib2 but for beginners, Requests might be more convenient. Additional libraries, you might need: os for Operating system and file operations networkx and igraph for graph based data manipulations regular expressions for finding patterns in text data BeautifulSoup for scrapping web. It is inferior to Scrapy as it will extract information from just a single webpage in a run.

Coding and Aptitude Round before interview Coding challenges are meant to test your coding skills (especially if you are applying for ML engineer role). The coding challenges can contain algorithm and data structures problems of varying difficulty. These challenges will be timed based on how complicated the questions are. These are intended to test your basic algorithmic thinking. Sometimes, a complicated data science question like making predictions based on twitter data are also given. These challenges are hosted on HackerRank, HackerEarth, CoderByte etc. In addition, you may even be asked multiple-choice questions on the fundamentals of data science and statistics. This round is meant to be a filtering round where candidates whose fundamentals are little shaky are eliminated. These rounds are typically conducted without any manual intervention, so it is important to be well prepared for this round. Sometimes a separate Aptitude test is conducted or along with the technical round an aptitude test is also conducted to assess your aptitude skills. A Data Scientist is expected to have a good aptitude as this field is continuously evolving and a Data Scientist encounters new challenges every day. If you have appeared for GMAT / GRE or CAT, this should be easy for you. Resources for Prep: For algorithms and data structures prep,Leetcode and Hackerrank are good resources. For aptitude prep, you can refer to IndiaBixand Practice Aptitude. With respect to data science challenges, practice well on GLabs and Kaggle. Brilliant is an excellent resource for tricky math and statistics questions. For practising SQL, SQL Zoo and Mode Analytics are good resources that allow you to solve the exercises in the browser itself. Things to Note: Ensure that you are calm and relaxed before you attempt to answer the challenge. Read through all the questions before you start attempting the same. Let your mind go into problem-solving mode before your fingers do! In case, you are finished with the test before time, recheck your answers and then submit. Sometimes these rounds don’t go your way, you might have had a brain fade, it was not your day etc. Don’t worry! Shake if off for there is always a next time and this is not the end of the world.

Enjoy our content? Advertise on this channel and reach a highly engaged audience! 👉🏻 It's easy with Telega.io. As the leading platform for native ads and integrations on Telegram, it provides user-friendly and efficient tools for quick and automated ad launches. ⚡️ Place your ad here in three simple steps: 1 Sign up: https://telega.io/c/DataScienceInterviews 2 Top up the balance in a convenient way 3 Create your advertising post If your ad aligns with our content, we’ll gladly publish it. Start your promotion journey now!

10 commonly asked data science interview questions along with their answers 1️⃣ What is the difference between supervised and unsupervised learning? Supervised learning involves learning from labeled data to predict outcomes while unsupervised learning involves finding patterns in unlabeled data. 2️⃣ Explain the bias-variance tradeoff in machine learning. The bias-variance tradeoff is a key concept in machine learning. Models with high bias have low complexity and over-simplify, while models with high variance are more complex and over-fit to the training data. The goal is to find the right balance between bias and variance. 3️⃣ What is the Central Limit Theorem and why is it important in statistics? The Central Limit Theorem (CLT) states that the sampling distribution of the sample means will be approximately normally distributed regardless of the underlying population distribution, as long as the sample size is sufficiently large. It is important because it justifies the use of statistics, such as hypothesis testing and confidence intervals, on small sample sizes. 4️⃣ Describe the process of feature selection and why it is important in machine learning. Feature selection is the process of selecting the most relevant features (variables) from a dataset. This is important because unnecessary features can lead to over-fitting, slower training times, and reduced accuracy. 5️⃣ What is the difference between overfitting and underfitting in machine learning? How do you address them? Overfitting occurs when a model is too complex and fits the training data too well, resulting in poor performance on unseen data. Underfitting occurs when a model is too simple and cannot fit the training data well enough, resulting in poor performance on both training and unseen data. Techniques to address overfitting include regularization and early stopping, while techniques to address underfitting include using more complex models or increasing the amount of input data. 6️⃣ What is regularization and why is it used in machine learning? Regularization is a technique used to prevent overfitting in machine learning. It involves adding a penalty term to the loss function to limit the complexity of the model, effectively reducing the impact of certain features. 7️⃣ How do you handle missing data in a dataset? Handling missing data can be done by either deleting the missing samples, imputing the missing values, or using models that can handle missing data directly. 8️⃣ What is the difference between classification and regression in machine learning? Classification is a type of supervised learning where the goal is to predict a categorical or discrete outcome, while regression is a type of supervised learning where the goal is to predict a continuous or numerical outcome. 9️⃣ Explain the concept of cross-validation and why it is used. Cross-validation is a technique used to evaluate the performance of a machine learning model. It involves spliting the data into training and validation sets, and then training and evaluating the model on multiple such splits. Cross-validation gives a better idea of the model's generalization ability and helps prevent over-fitting. 🔟 What evaluation metrics would you use to evaluate a binary classification model? Some commonly used evaluation metrics for binary classification models are accuracy, precision, recall, F1 score, and ROC-AUC. The choice of metric depends on the specific requirements of the problem. Best Data Science & Machine Learning Resources: https://topmate.io/coding/914624 Credits: https://t.me/datasciencefun Like if you need similar content 😄👍 Hope this helps you 😊

SQL Interview Question for #DataScience: A company has provided sales data containing information about customer purchases, as shown in the table below. Your task is to: Calculate Total Revenue Calculate Total Sales by Product Find Top Customers by Revenue Solve it using SQL

Amazon Interview Process for Data Scientist position 📍Round 1- Phone Screen round This was a preliminary round to check my capability, projects to coding, Stats, ML, etc. After clearing this round the technical Interview rounds started. There were 5-6 rounds (Multiple rounds in one day). 📍 𝗥𝗼𝘂𝗻𝗱 𝟮- 𝗗𝗮𝘁𝗮 𝗦𝗰𝗶𝗲𝗻𝗰𝗲 𝗕𝗿𝗲𝗮𝗱𝘁𝗵: In this round the interviewer tested my knowledge on different kinds of topics. 📍𝗥𝗼𝘂𝗻𝗱 𝟯- 𝗗𝗲𝗽𝘁𝗵 𝗥𝗼𝘂𝗻𝗱: In this round the interviewers grilled deeper into 1-2 topics. I was asked questions around: Standard ML tech, Linear Equation, Techniques, etc. 📍𝗥𝗼𝘂𝗻𝗱 𝟰- 𝗖𝗼𝗱𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗥𝗼𝘂𝗻𝗱- This was a Python coding round, which I cleared successfully. 📍𝗥𝗼𝘂𝗻𝗱 𝟱- This was 𝗛𝗶𝗿𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗠𝗮𝗻𝗮𝗴𝗲𝗿 where my fitment for the team got assessed. 📍𝗟𝗮𝘀𝘁 𝗥𝗼𝘂𝗻𝗱- 𝗕𝗮𝗿 𝗥𝗮𝗶𝘀𝗲𝗿- Very important round, I was asked heavily around Leadership principles & Employee dignity questions. So, here are my Tips if you’re targeting any Data Science role: -> Never make up stuff & don’t lie in your Resume. -> Projects thoroughly study. -> Practice SQL, DSA, Coding problem on Leetcode/Hackerank. -> Download data from Kaggle & build EDA (Data manipulation questions are asked) Best Data Science & Machine Learning Resources: https://topmate.io/coding/914624 ENJOY LEARNING 👍👍

Hey guys, Here are some best Telegram Channels for free education in 2024 👇👇 Free Courses with Certificate Web Development Free Resources Data Science & Machine Learning Programming Free Books Python Free Courses Ethical Hacking & Cyber Security English Speaking & Communication Stock Marketing & Investment Banking Coding Projects Jobs & Internship Opportunities Crack your coding Interviews Udemy Free Courses with Certificate Free access to all the Paid Channels 👇👇 https://t.me/addlist/ID95piZJZa0wYzk5 Do react with ♥️ if you need more content like this ENJOY LEARNING 👍👍

What is feature selection? Why do we need it? Feature Selection is a method used to select the relevant features for the model to train on. We need feature selection to remove the irrelevant features which leads the model to under-perform.

What are the main parameters of the decision tree model? • maximum tree depth • minimum samples per leaf node • impurity criterion

What are the decision trees? This is a type of supervised learning algorithm that is mostly used for classification problems. Surprisingly, it works for both categorical and continuous dependent variables. In this algorithm, we split the population into two or more homogeneous sets. This is done based on most significant attributes/ independent variables to make as distinct groups as possible. A decision tree is a flowchart-like tree structure, where each internal node (non-leaf node) denotes a test on an attribute, each branch represents an outcome of the test, and each leaf node (or terminal node) holds a value for the target variable. Various techniques : like Gini, Information Gain, Chi-square, entropy.

Why is it require to split our data into three parts: train, validation, and test? • The training set is used to fit the model, i.e. to train the model with the data. • The validation set is then used to provide an unbiased evaluation of a model while fine-tuning hyperparameters. This improves the generalization of the model. • Finally, a test data set which the model has never "seen" before should be used for the final evaluation of the model. This allows for an unbiased evaluation of the model. The evaluation should never be performed on the same data that is used for training. Otherwise the model performance would not be representative.

Can you explain how cross-validation works? Cross-validation is the process to separate your total training set into two subsets: training and validation set, and evaluate your model to choose the hyperparameters. But you do this process iteratively, selecting differents training and validation set, in order to reduce the bias that you would have by selecting only one validation set What is K-fold cross-validation? K fold cross validation is a method of cross validation where we select a hyperparameter k. The dataset is now divided into k parts. Now, we take the 1st part as validation set and remaining k-1 as training set. Then we take the 2nd part as validation set and remaining k-1 parts as training set. Like this, each part is used as validation set once and the remaining k-1 parts are taken together and used as training set. It should not be used in a time series data.

What is the bias-variance trade-off? • Bias is the error introduced by approximating the true underlying function, which can be quite complex, by a simpler model. Variance is a model sensitivity to changes in the training dataset. • Bias-variance trade-off is a relationship between the expected test error and the variance and the bias - both contribute to the level of the test error and ideally should be as small as possible: ExpectedTestError = Variance + Bias² + IrreducibleError • But as a model complexity increases, the bias decreases and the variance increases which leads to overfitting. And vice versa, model simplification helps to decrease the variance but it increases the bias which leads to underfitting.

What is sigmoid? What does it do? A sigmoid function is a type of activation function, and more specifically defined as a squashing function. Squashing functions limit the output to a range between 0 and 1, making these functions useful in the prediction of probabilities. Sigmod(x) = 1/(1+e^{-x})

What is overfitting? When your model perform very well on your training set but can't generalize the test set, because it adjusted a lot to the training set.