NEET Biology Physics Chemistry Notes

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✅ Structure of Parenchyma Cells ➖ It is a living cell ➖ It has a prominent nucleus and protoplast ➖ The cells of parenchyma are isodiametric or polyhedral in shape. They may be polygonal, oval, round or elongated ➖ These cells are closely packed or may have small intercellular space ➖ They are made up of thin cell wall made up of cellulose, hemicellulose ➖ Plasmodesmata join the cells of the parenchyma tissue ➖ They have several small vacuoles. In the older parenchyma, smaller vacuoles merge to become a large central vacuole, which may accumulate anthocyanin or tannins ➖ Water is abundant in the vacuoles of the parenchyma cells that act as a water reservoir ➖ Storage parenchyma cells may have thick xyloglucan walls e.g. in the endosperm of the date palm. The sugar is used during germination and walls become thin ➖ The parenchyma cells of flowers and fruits contain chromoplasts ➖ Parenchyma cells may have a thick lignified wall that makes it difficult to differentiate it from sclerenchyma ➖ Hydraulic property of cells gives the parenchyma its mechanical strength ➖ Chloroplasts are present in the parenchyma cells that are specified to perform photosynthesis ➖ The parenchyma cells which perform a secretory function, have dense protoplasm that is rich in ribosomes, Golgi bodies and a highly developed endoplasmic reticulum ✅ पैरेन्काइमा कोशिकाओं की संरचना ➖ यह एक जीवित कोशिका है ➖ इसमें एक प्रमुख केंद्रक और प्रोटोप्लास्ट होता है ➖ पैरेन्काइमा की कोशिकाएँ आइसोडायमेट्रिक या पॉलीहेड्रल आकार की होती हैं। वे बहुभुज, अंडाकार, गोल या लम्बी हो सकते हैं ➖ ये कोशिकाएं सघन रूप से सटी हुई होती हैं या इनमें छोटी अंतरकोशिकीय जगह हो सकती है ➖ ये सेल्युलोज, हेमिसेल्यूलोज से बनी पतली कोशिका भित्ति से बने होते हैं ➖ प्लाज्मोडेसमाटा पैरेन्काइमा ऊतक की कोशिकाओं से जुड़ते हैं ➖ इनमें कई छोटी रसधानियाँ होती हैं। पुराने पैरेन्काइमा में, छोटे रिक्तिकाएं विलय होकर एक बड़ी केंद्रीय रसधानी बन जाती हैं, जो एंथोसायनिन या टैनिन जमा कर सकती हैं। ➖ पानी जलाशय के रूप में कार्य करने वाले पैरेन्काइमा कोशिकाओं के रसधानी में पानी प्रचुर मात्रा में होता है ➖ भंडारण पैरेन्काइमा कोशिकाओं में मोटी जाइलोग्लुकन दीवारें हो सकती हैं उदा। खजूर के एंडोस्पर्म में। अंकुरण के समय चीनी का उपयोग किया जाता है और दीवारें पतली हो जाती हैं ➖फूलों और फलों की मृदूतक कोशिकाओं में क्रोमोप्लास्ट होते हैं ➖ पैरेन्काइमा कोशिकाओं में एक मोटी लिग्निफाइड दीवार हो सकती है जिससे इसे स्क्लेरेन्काइमा से अलग करना मुश्किल हो जाता है ➖ कोशिकाओं का हाइड्रोलिक गुण पैरेन्काइमा को इसकी यांत्रिक शक्ति प्रदान करता है ➖ क्लोरोप्लास्ट पैरेन्काइमा कोशिकाओं में मौजूद होते हैं जो प्रकाश संश्लेषण करने के लिए निर्दिष्ट होते हैं ➖ पैरेन्काइमा कोशिकाएं जो एक स्रावी कार्य करती हैं, उनमें घने प्रोटोप्लाज्म होते हैं जो राइबोसोम, गोल्गी निकायों और एक उच्च विकसित एंडोप्लाज्मिक रेटिकुलम से भरपूर होते हैं।

🛡Sexual Reproduction♻️ ➖The sexual mode of reproduction comprises the process of combining DNA from two different individuals. ➖There are two germ-cells (responsible for producing a new organism); one is large and contains the food-stores whereas the other one is smaller and likely to be motile. ➖The motile germ-cell, normally, is known as the ‘male gamete’ and the germ-cell containing the stored food is known as the ‘female gamete.’ 🔰Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants ➖As shown in the image given below, flowers have different parts, such as sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Among these, stamens and carpels are the reproductive parts and contain the germ-cells. ➖Stamen is the male reproductive part, which produces pollen grains (yellowish substance). ➖Carpel, which is present in the center of a flower, is the female reproductive part. ➖Carpel is made of three parts. ➖The bottom part, which is swollen, is the ovary; the middle part, which is elongated, is known as the style; and the terminal part, which may be sticky, is known as the stigma. ➖The ovary contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell. ➖The male germ-cell that produced by the pollen grain fuses with the female gamete present in the ovule. ➖The fusion of the germ-cells or fertilization produces zygote, which is capable of growing into a new plant. ➖The flower, which contains either stamens or carpels, is known as unisexual, such as papaya, watermelon, etc. ➖The flower, which contains both stamens and carpels, is known as bisexual, such as Hibiscus, mustard, etc. ✅Reproduction in Human Beings✅ Human beings have typical sexual reproduction process where mature male and female mate to produce a new baby. ✍️Male Reproductive System ➖The male reproductive system produces the germ-cells; further, other part of the reproductive system delivers the produced germ-cells to the site of fertilization. ➖The formation of sperms or germ-cells takes place in the testes. ➖The formation of sperm typically requires a lower temperature than the normal body temperature. ➖The testes secrete hormone, namely testosterone that brings changes in the appearance of boys at the time of their puberty. ➖The formed sperms are then delivered through the vas deferens, which unites with a tube coming from the urinary bladder. ➖The urethra, likewise, acts as a common passage for both the sperms and urine. ➖The sperms are fluids that consist of mainly genetic material; it has a long tail that helps to move towards the female germ-cell. ✍️Female Reproductive System ➖The female germ-cells or eggs are produced in the ovaries. ➖The egg is transported from the ovary to the womb through a thin oviduct known as fallopian tube. ➖The two oviducts unite and form an elastic bag-like structure known as the uterus, which opens into the vagina through the cervix. ➖During the sexual intercourse, most likely, the egg and the sperm (zygote) get fertilized and implanted in the lining of the uterus. ➖The thickened lining (of the uterus) and richly supplied blood nourish the growing embryo (in the uterus). ➖The embryo receives nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue known as placenta. ➖Likewise, the development of a child inside the mother’s body, takes about nine months.

✅ Characteristics of parenchyma ➖ They are living permanent tissues that have the ability to divide at maturity and help in the regeneration and healing of wounds ➖ Parenchyma cells are the foundation of a plant as reproductive cells (spores, gametes) are parenchymatous in nature ➖ Single parenchyma cell of a zygote has an ability to develop into an entire plant. These cells are called “totipotent” cells ➖ Parenchyma cells occur in the form of continuous masses as homogeneous parenchyma tissues e.g. in pith and cortex of stems and roots, mesophyll of leaves, the flesh of succulent fruits and in the endosperm of seeds ➖ Parenchyma cells may be associated with other types of cells to form heterogeneous complex tissues such as parenchyma of xylem and phloem ➖ Parenchyma cells are essential for activities like photosynthesis, storage, secretion, assimilation, respiration, excretion and radial transport of water and solute ✅ पैरेन्काइमा के लक्षण ➖ वे जीवित स्थायी ऊतक होते हैं जो परिपक्वता पर विभाजित होने की क्षमता रखते हैं और घावों के पुनर्जनन और उपचार में मदद करते हैं ➖ पैरेन्काइमा कोशिकाएं पौधे की नींव होती हैं क्योंकि प्रजनन कोशिकाएं (बीजाणु, युग्मक) प्रकृति में पैरेन्काइमा होती हैं ➖ जाइगोट की एकल पैरेन्काइमा कोशिका में एक पूरे पौधे में विकसित होने की क्षमता होती है। इन कोशिकाओं को "टोटिपोटेंट" कोशिकाएँ कहा जाता है ➖ पैरेन्काइमा कोशिकाएं सजातीय पैरेन्काइमा ऊतकों के रूप में निरंतर द्रव्यमान के रूप में होती हैं उदा। तनों और जड़ों के मज्जा और प्रांतस्था में, पत्तियों के पर्णमध्योतक, रसीले फलों के मांस और बीजों के भ्रूणपोष में ➖ पैरेन्काइमा कोशिकाएं अन्य प्रकार की कोशिकाओं से जुड़ी हो सकती हैं, जिससे विषम जटिल ऊतक जैसे जाइलम और फ्लोएम के पैरेन्काइमा बनते हैं। ➖ पैरेन्काइमा कोशिकाएं प्रकाश संश्लेषण, भंडारण, स्राव, आत्मसात, श्वसन, उत्सर्जन और पानी और विलेय के रेडियल परिवहन जैसी गतिविधियों के लिए आवश्यक हैं।

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🔷Matter In Our Surroundings🔷 Everything found in this universe is made up of some materials, scientists have named them as “matter.” For example, the food we eat, the air we breathe, stones, clouds, stars, plants, animals, water, dust, everything is categorized as matter. ♦️Characteristics of Particles of Matter ➖Particles of matter are very small, normally, not visible from naked eye. ➖Particles of matter keep moving continuously, which is known as the “kinetic energy.” ➖Kinetic energy of particles directly depends on the temperature, as temperature increases, the speed of the movement also increases. ➖The particles of matter have attracting force; therefore, they attract each other. ➖The attracting force of the particles keeps the particles together; however, the strength of the attracting force varies from one kind of matter to another. States of Matter Matter has three following states − ➖Solid State ➖Liquid State ➖Gaseous State 🧿Solid State ➖All the solid materials have a definite shape, distinct boundaries, and fixed volumes. ➖Most of the solid materials have negligible compressibility. ➖All the solid materials have a natural tendency to maintain their shape when subjected to outside force. ➖The solid materials can be broken under applied force, but it is very difficult to change their shape, as they are rigid. 🧿Liquid State ➖Unlike solids, liquids have no fixed shape; however, they have a fixed volume ➖Liquids take up the shape of the container in which they are kept. ➖Liquids have the property to flow and change shape. 🧿Gaseous State ➖Matter in the form of air, which is neither solid nor liquid, is known as gas. For example, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, etc. ➖Unlike solid, gas has not definite size and shape. ➖The gases, such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG – used in cooking); compressed natural gas (CNG – used as fuel in vehicles), etc. have high compressibility; therefore, large volume of a gas can be compressed into a small cylinder and can be transported easily. ➖Gases, normally, show the property of diffusing very fast into other gases. This is the reason that we can smell (either good or bad) from the distance. 🔷Matter Can Change its State ➖Water can exist in all three states, e.g. Ice as solid; water (H2O) as liquid; and water vapor as gas. ➖The temperature, at which solid melt and transform into the liquid (at the given atmospheric pressure), is known as “melting point.” ➖The melting point of a solid is an indication of the strength of the force of attraction between its particles. ➖The melting point of ice is 273.16 K, i.e. 00 C. ➖The process of melting (i.e. change of solid state into liquid state) is known as fusion. ➖The amount of heat energy, which is required to change 1 kg of a solid materials into liquid materials at a given atmospheric pressure, is known as the latent heat of fusion. ➖The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the given atmospheric pressure is known as “boiling point.” ➖The boiling point of water is 373 K i.e. 1000C. ➖A change of state of a matter directly from solid to gas without changing into liquid state (or vice versa) is known as “sublimation.” ➖The phenomenon i.e. change of a liquid into vapors at any temperature below its boiling point is known as “evaporation.” ➖Solid carbon dioxide (CO2) is stored under high pressure. ➖Solid CO2 gets converted directly into gaseous state once the pressure decreases to 1 atmosphere. ➖Atmosphere (atm) is a unit of measuring pressure exerted by the gas and the unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa); 1 atmosphere = 1.01 × 105 Pa. 🔷The Fourth State of Matter ➖Plasma is the state that consists of super energetic and super excited particles. ➖The super excited particles are found in the form of ionized gases. E.g. the fluorescent tube (which contains helium gas) and neon sign bulbs (which contain neon gas) consist of plasma.