Physiotherapy 2nd year notes

* OPERANT CONDITIONING Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that uses rewards and  punishment to modify behavior. Through operant conditioning, behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, and behavior that is punished will rarely occur.

Social psychology is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, beliefs, intentions, and goals are constructed within a social context by the actual or imagined interactions with others.

* CHILD PSYCHOLOGY child psychology, also called child development, the study of the psychological processes of children and, specifically, how these processes differ from those of adults, how they develop from birth to the end of adolescence, and how and why they differ from one child to the next.

SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY The main schools of psychology are structuralism functionalism Gestalt behaviorism psychoanalysis humanism cognitivism.

The evolution of psychology was an outcome of ancient philosophy. It later varied with the development of different approaches of psychological study. The formal beginning of modern psychology took place in 1879 with the establishment of an experimental laboratory in Leipzig by Wilhelm Wundt. The initial approach to study psychology was based on introspection or structuralism in which the individuals were asked to describe their experiences. It was followed by functionalism that studied the working of the mind and the impact of behaviour upon people’s interaction with their environment. Gestalt psychology emerged as a reaction to structuralism in the early 20th century and focused on the organisation of the perceptual experiences. Another reaction was the development of behaviourism that studied behaviour or responses in a measurable and objective form. This was followed by psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud that viewed human behaviour as a dynamic manifestation of unconscious desires, conflicts and their gratification. In contrast, the humanistic perspective emphasised the free will of human beings and their natural striving to grow and unfold their inner potential. Further, Cognitive perspective was a combination ofGestalt approach and structuralismand focused on how an individual perceived the world. Later, Constructivism viewed human beings as activelyconstructing their minds through the exploration of physical and the social world. It was followed by Vygotsky’s view that human mind develops through social and cultural processes in which the mind is perceived as culturally constructed by joint interaction between children and adults. Therefore, the evolution of psychology passed through various stages and levels. Starting from the roots of philosophy, it took a new direction and included numerous theories of structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism, constructivism, etc. However, in contemporary era the discipline of psychology has grown into a scientific discipline, which deals with various processes underlying human experiences and behaviours

The experimental method involves the manipulation of variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships. The key features are controlled methods and the random allocation of participants into controlled and experimental groups. TYPES There are three types of experiments are 1. Lab Experiment A laboratory experiment is an experiment conducted under highly controlled conditions (not necessarily a laboratory) where accurate measurements are possible. 2. Field Experiment Field experiments are done in every day (i.e., real-life) environment of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the independent variable, but in a real-life setting (so they cannot really control extraneous variables). 3. Natural Experiment Natural experiments are conducted in every day (i.e., real life) environment of the participants, but here the experimenter has no control over the independent variable as it occurs naturally in real life.

Reinforcement means you are increasing a behavior, and punishment means you are decreasing a behavior. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, and punishment can also be positive or negative. All reinforcers (positive or negative) increase the likelihood of a behavioral response. All punishers (positive or negative) decrease the likelihood of a behavioral response.  Types There are two types of reinforcement are • primary reinforcement • secondary reinforcement

Attention is a state of consciousness in which a person can respond to a stimulus or stimuli. In psychology, a stimulus can be a required task, an object, or an event that requires a response. Types of Attention The types of attention that are most often used are •selective •divided •sustained •executive. SUSTAINED ATTENTION Also called Focused attention. It is the brain's ability to concentrate its attention on a target stimulus for any period of time. Focused attention is a type of attention that makes it possible to quickly detect relevant stimuli. Determinants of Attention *External Factors These are the features of stimuli such as size, intensity, shape etc *Internal Factors interests, motive, mind set and our attitudes & moods

Factor influencing forgetting 1. Inadequate Impression at the Time of Learning  2. Laps of Time  3. Interference  4. Lack of Rest and Sleep  5. Poor Health and Defective Mental State  6. Nature of the Material Learned  7. Methods Used to Learn 8. Raise in Emotion.

STRESS Stress is a feeling of emotional or physical tension. It can come from any event or thought that makes you feel frustrated, angry, or nervous. Stress is your body's reaction to a challenge or demand. In short bursts, stress can be positive, such as when it helps you avoid danger or meet a deadline. But when stress lasts for a long time, it may harm your health. Stress is a normal feeling. TYPES There are two main types of stress: •Acute stress. •Chronic stress SIGN & SYMPTOM High blood pressure Heart disease Diabetes Obesity Depression or anxiety Skin problems, such as acne or eczema Menstrual problems Diarrhea or constipation Forgetfulness Frequent aches and pains Headaches Lack of energy or focus Sexual problem

( Psychology is the science of human and animal behaviour. It includes the application of this science to human problems. (Morgan et al., 1986) ( The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. (Feldman,1996)

Definations of psychology

DIFFERENT FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Koch Postulates