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Chemical Bonding & Structure Notes

General Organic chemistry

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✅ Huygens’ Wave Theory of Light: This is one of the most important principles of wave analysis which was introduced by an eminent physicist Huygens. The crux of the principle is that every point of a wave front can be treated as the source of secondary wavelets that spread out in all directions with the same speed as that of the speed of propagation of waves. This just implies that an edge of a wave can actually be viewed as creating a series of circular waves. Usually, these waves combine to carry on the propagation, but sometimes there are noteworthy evident results. The wave front which is defined as the surface, on which the wave disturbance is in phase, actually appears to be tangent to all the circular waves. Though these results can be easily derived from Maxwell’s equations as well, but Huygens’ Principle is better suited for performing calculations on waves. Maxwell was the one who provided solid theoretical basis to what Huygens’ had already anticipated around two centuries back. According to this principle, a plane light wave passes through free space at the speed of light. The below figure demonstrates the motion of light rays associated with the propagation of wave front. 👉🏻 A critical description of the Huygens’ Principle is (i) Each point on a wave front acts as a source of a new disturbance and therefore emits its own set of spherical waves which are called secondary wavelets. The secondary wavelets travel in all directions with the velocity of light as long as they move in the same medium. (ii) The locus or the envelope of these wavelets in the forward direction indicates the position of new wave front at any subsequent time. @pdfstudymaterialss

RAY OPTICS HANDWRITTEN NOTES @pdfstudymaterialss

Hydrogen Short Notes

COMPLETE Chemical_Properties of Alkali Earth Metals: FROMNCERT 1. Reaction with water : Mg + H2O → MgO + H2 or, Mg + 2H2O → Mg (OH)2 + H2 Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2 2. Formation of oxides and nitrides Be + O2 (air) +Δ→ 2BeO 3Be + N2 (air) +Δ → Be3N2 Mg + air + Δ → MgO + Ng3N2 3. Formation of Nitrides 3M + N2 + Δ → M3N2 Be3N2 + Δ → 3Be + N2 Ba3N2 + 6H2O + Δ → 3Ba (OH)2 + 2NH3 Ca3N2 + 6H2O + Δ → 3Ca (OH)2 + 2NH3 4. Reaction with hydrogen: M + H2 + Δ → MH2 Both BeH2 and MgH2 are covalent compounds having polymeric structures in which H – atoms between beryllium atoms are held together by three centre – two electron (3C - 2e) bonds as shown below: 5. Reaction with carbon – (Formation of carbides) When BeO is heated with carbon at 2175 – 2275 K a brick red coloured carbide of the formula Be2C is formed 2BeO +2C \xrightarrow[]{2175 - 2275 K}Be_2C +2CO It is a covalent compound and react water forming methane. Be2C + 4H2O → 2Be (OH)2 + CH4 6. Reaction with Ammonia: Like alkali metal, the alkaline earth metals dissolve in liquid ammonia to give deep blue black solution from which ammoniates [ M (NH3)6 ]2+ can be recovered. Anamolous Behaviour of Beryllium: Be is harder than other members of its group. Be is lighter than Mg. Its melting and boiling points are higher than those of Mg & other members. Be does not react with water while Mg reacts with boiling water. BeO is amphoteric while MgO is weakly basic. Be forms covalent compounds whereas other members form ionic compounds. Beryllium carbide reacts with water to give methane whereas carbides of other alkaline earth metals gives acetylene gas. Be2C + 4H2O → 2Be (OH)2 + CH4 Mg2C2 + 2H2O → Mg (OH)2 + C2H2 CaC2 + 2H2O → Ca (OH)2 + C2H2 Beryllium does not exhibit coordination number more than four as it has four orbitals in the valence shell. The other members of this group has coordination number Diagonal relationship of Be with Al: Unlike groups – 2 elements but like aluminium, beryllium forms covalent compounds. The hydroxides of Be, [Be(OH)2] and aluminium [Al(OH)3] are amphoteric in nature, whereas those of other elements of group – 2 are basic in nature. The oxides of both Be and Al i.e. BeO and Al2O3 are high melting insoluble solids. BeCl2 and AlCl3 have bridged chloride polymeric structure. The salts of beryllium as well as aluminium are extensively hydrolysed. Carbides of both the metal reacts with water liberating methane gas. Be2C + 4H2O → 2Be (OH)2 + CH4 AI4C3 + 12H2O → 4Al (OH)3 + 3CH4 The oxides and hydroxides of both Be and Al are amphoteric and dissolve in sodium hydroxide as well as in hydrochloric acid. BeO + 2HCI → BeCI2 + H2O BeO + 2NaOH → Na2BeO2 + H2O Al2O3 + 6HCI → 2AICI3 + H2O AI2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAIO2 + H2O Like Al, Be is not readily attacked by acids because of the presence of an oxide film. Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3): It occurs in nature as marble, limestone, chalk, coral, calcite, etc. It is prepared as a white powder, known as precipitated chalk, by dissolving marble or limestone in hydrochloric acid and removing iron and aluminium present by precipitating with NH3, and then adding ammonium carbonate to the solution; the precipitate is filtered, washed and dried. CaCl2 + (NH4)2CO3 →CaCO3 + 2NH4Cl It dissolves in water containing CO2, forming Ca(HCO3)2 but is precipitated from solution by boiling. CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 ↔️ Ca(HCO3)2 @pdfstudymaterialss

✔️Important SCIENCE (CHEMISTRY ) ✅. Gases used in welding are ? – Acetylene & Oxygen ✅ Gases used by sea divers for breathing are ? – Oxygen & Helium ✅. Best sources for Vitamin D are? – Sunlight & Fish liver ✅Zinc Phosphide is used as? – Rat Poison ✅. Fuse wire is made up of – Lead and Tin ✅Purest form of Iron is? – Wrought Iron ✅ Radium is extracted from . – Pitchblende ✅ Which agent is as ‘seed’ in artificial rain? – Silver Iodide ✅. Oxides of metals are . – Alkaline ✅ During the process of ‘rusting’ , the weight of iron . –Increases ✅ (metal) is liquid at room temperature. – Mercury ✅ What is the formula of common salt – NaCl ✅. What is the maximum number of electrons that a p-orbital can hold – 6 ✅. What is used in fire extinguisher – Sodium bicarbonate ✅ What is the nature of metal oxides – Basic ✅. Which gas burns with popping sound – Hydrogen ✅ Which metal is used for galvanization – Zinc ✅. What is the nature of bleaching powder – Oxidising agent ✅ Which is stored in Kerosene – Sodium ✅ Phenolphthalein gives which color in acidic medium – Colorless ✅ Which gas is used in cigarette lighters? – Butane ✅. Biogas chiefly contains . – Methane ✅. Chemical used as fixer in Photography is . – Sodium thiosulphate ✅Aspirin is – Acetyl Salicylic Acid ✅ is also known as ‘Stranger Gas. – Xenon ✅ Natural rubber is a polymer derived from . – Isoprene @pdfstudymaterialss

NCERT FORMULAS (INORGANIC) @pdfstudymaterialss

Periodic table Short notes @pdfstudymaterialss

Physics Formula Sheet @pdfstudymaterialss

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🔰INORGANIC IN SHOTS🔰 ✌️Increasings or Decreasing Order ✨01. Melting point= Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs ✨02. Colour of the flame= Li-Red, Na-Golden, K-Violet, Rb-Red, Cs-Blue, Ca-Brick red, Sr-Blood red, Ba-Apple green ✨03. Stability of hydrides = LiH > NaH > KH > RbH> CsH ✨04. Basic nature of hydroxides= LIOH < NaOH < KOH < RbOH < CsOH ✨05. Hydration energy= Li> Na > K> Rb > Cs ✨06.) Reducing character= Li > Cs > Rb > K > Na ✨07. Stability of +3 oxidation state= B> Al > Ga > In > T1 ✨08. Stability of +1 oxidation state= Ga < In < TI ✨09. Basic nature of the oxides and hydroxides= B< Al< Ga < In < TI ✨10. Relative strength of Lewis acid= BF3 < BCl3 < BBr3 < BI3 ✨11. Ionisation energy= B> Al In SiO2 > Ge02 > SnO2 > PbO2 ✨15. Reducing nature of hydrides= CH4 < SiH4 < GeH4 < SnH4 < PbH4 ✨16. Thermal stability of tetrahalides= CCl4> SiCl4> GeCl4> SnCl4 > PbCl4 ✨17. Oxidising character of M+4 species= GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCl4 ✨18. Ease of hydrolysis of tetrahalides= SiCl4 < GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCI4 ✨19. Acidic strength of trioxides= N203 > P2O3 > As2O3 ✨20. Acidic strength of pentoxides= N2O2 > P2O2> As202 > Sb2O2 > Bi̟202 ✨21) Acidic strength of oxides of nitrogen= N2O < NO PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3 ✨23. Stability of trihalides of nitrogen= NF3 > NCl3 > NBr3 ✨24.Lewis base strength= NF3 PCI3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3 > BiCl3 ✨26.Lewis acid strength of trihalides of P, As, and Sb= PCl3 > ASCl3 > SbCl3 ✨27. Lewis acid strength among phosphorus trihalides PF3 > PCl3 > PBr3 > PI3 ✨(28) Melting and boiling point of hydrides= H2O > H2Te > H2Se >H2S ✨29. Volatility of hydrides= H2O < H2Te < H2Se < H2S ✨30. Reducing nature of hydrides= H2S < H2Se < H2Te ✨31. Covalent character of hydrides= H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te ✨32. The acidic character of oxides (elements in the same oxidation state)= SO2 > SeO2 > TeO2 > PoO2 SO3 > SeO3 > TeO3 ✨33. Acidic character of oxide of a particular element (e.g. S)= SO < SO2 < SO3 SO2 > TeO2 > SeO2 > PoO2 ✨34. Bond energy of halogens= Cl2 > Br2 > F2 > I2 ✨35. Solubility of halogen in water = F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2 ✨36. Oxidising power= F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2 ✨37. Enthalpy of hydration of X ion= F- > Cl- > Br- >I- ✨38. Reactivity of halogens:= F> Cl> Br > I ✨39. Ionic character of M-X bond in halides = M-F > M-Cl > MBr > M-I ✨40. Reducing character of X ion:= I- > Br- > Cl- > F- ✨41. Acidic strength of halogen acids= HI > HBr > HCI > HF ✨42 Reducing property of hydrogen halides = HF < HCL < HBr < HI ✨43. Oxidising power of oxides of chlorine = Cl2O > ClO2 > Cl206 > Cl2O7 ✨44. Decreasing ionic size= 02- > F- > Na+ > Mg2+ ✨45 Increasing acidic property= Na2O3 < MgO < ZnO< P205 ✨46 Increasing bond length= N2 <02 < F2 < CL2 ✨47 Increasing size= Ca2+ < Cl- < S2- ✨48 Increasing acid strength= HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4 ✨49 Increasing oxidation number of iodine= HI< I2 @pdfstudymaterialss

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