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Whig Ideology refers to the political beliefs and principles associated with the Whig Party, which emerged in 17th century England during the time of the Glorious Revolution (1688). The ideology evolved over time, but its core tenets were rooted in the support for constitutional monarchy, the rule of law, parliamentary sovereignty, and individual liberties, as opposed to the absolute power of the monarchy. Key Components of Whig Ideology 1. Constitutional Monarchy: Whigs advocated for a balanced government where the monarch's powers were limited by a constitution or laws established by Parliament. This opposed the idea of absolute monarchy, where the king or queen had unchecked power. 2. Parliamentary Sovereignty: Whigs supported the supremacy of Parliament over the monarchy, believing that the legitimacy of political authority derived from the people, as represented by Parliament. 3. The Rule of Law: Whig ideology emphasized the importance of laws that applied equally to all, including the monarch. They were opposed to arbitrary governance, advocating for transparent legal frameworks to ensure fairness and justice. 4. Religious Toleration: While Whigs were originally associated with supporting the rights of Protestant dissenters (non-Anglicans), they later came to be seen as advocates of broader religious toleration. However, Whig support for religious toleration did not initially extend to Catholics. 5. Opposition to Arbitrary Power: The Whigs were deeply concerned about the potential for tyranny, particularly from a monarch or executive that did not answer to the people or their representatives. Their opposition to absolutism was a defining feature. 6. Property Rights: The protection of private property was another central component. Whigs believed that property owners had a stake in society and, therefore, should have a say in its governance, linking property rights to individual liberty. 7. Progressive Reform: Over time, Whigs came to represent the interests of the rising commercial and middle classes, advocating for social and political reforms, such as expanding the franchise (right to vote) and promoting free trade. 8. Support for the Glorious Revolution: Whigs saw the Glorious Revolution of 1688 as a landmark moment, where James II was deposed, and William III and Mary II were invited to the throne under conditions that solidified parliamentary supremacy and constitutional governance. Whig ideology eventually became the foundation of the Liberal Party in Britain, particularly in the 19th century. Many of the Whig principles, such as limited government, individual rights, and parliamentary control, influenced the development of modern liberalism

Locke and Liberalism Early Narratives on Liberalism: - 20th Century Shift: Initially, liberalism was associated with the late 18th and early 19th centuries, linked with the French and American revolutions, socialism, and the spread of capitalism. - By the 21st century, liberalism was traced back to the mid-17th century, focusing on the Glorious Revolution and religious wars in Europe. - Shifts in focus from utility, democracy, and political economy to natural rights, social contract, and constitutionalism. - Prominent figures shifted from Jeremy Bentham to John Locke. Locke’s Central Role: - Locke is now often seen as the foundational thinker of liberalism. - Scholars like Stephen Holmes and Wolin highlight Locke's significance, considering him central to understanding modern liberalism. Historical Context of Liberalism: - Liberalism as a political category only emerged in the early 19th century. - Originally used pejoratively by Tories to describe Whigs, it was later reclaimed by radical Whigs advocating non-revolutionary reform. - The term "liberal" started to describe the demands of the emerging middle class in the 1820s and 1830s. Development of the Liberal Tradition: - Early 20th century: Liberalism was not well-established as a coherent intellectual tradition. - Scholars began constructing an authoritative liberal tradition only during the Edwardian era. - The crisis of liberalism led to narratives identifying its origins with the industrial revolution and revolutions in France and America. Early Exclusions: - Early liberalism was often linked with the rise of democracy and excluded the political thought of earlier Whigs. - Figures like James Fitzjames Stephen equated liberalism with increasing popular power. Locke’s Reputation in the 19th Century: - Locke was not initially seen as a liberal. - His political writings were often considered obsolete or merely reflective of Whig ideology. - Locke’s political ideas were downplayed compared to his contributions to philosophy, with natural rights and the social contract viewed as outdated. Late 19th to Early 20th Century Criticism: - Locke's political theory was dismissed as defective and outdated by thinkers like Henry Sidgwick and Herbert Spencer. - Locke’s theory of the social contract was particularly criticized and seen as incompatible with newer political developments. Locke’s Revival: - Locke was posthumously conscripted into liberalism during the 20th century, becoming retrospectively regarded as a liberal figure. - Modern scholars view Locke's work as foundational to the liberal tradition, despite historical rejection by his contemporaries.

*Summative Conception and Liberalism* - Thomas Nagel's Assertion: Nagel emphasizes that most political argument in the Western world revolves around different branches of the liberal tradition, which reflects its ideological dominance. Perry Anderson and Raymond Geuss agree, pointing out the lack of significant opposition to liberalism. - Liberalism's Dominance: Liberalism now encompasses the majority of legitimate political positions in the West, and most political ideologies (e.g., socialism, conservatism) have been ideologically incorporated into it. - Limitations of Stipulative and Canonical Protocols: These traditional methods fail to account for the plurality and complexity of contemporary liberalism. Instead, a comprehensive account is needed to explain the ideological conscription of various political movements into liberalism. - Summative Conception: - The liberal tradition should be viewed as the sum of all arguments that have been classified and recognized as liberal by self-proclaimed liberals across time and space. - This approach helps understand the elastic usage of the term "liberalism" and avoids trying to define an "authentic" or "pure" form. - Liberalism should be seen as an evolving and contested historical phenomenon, shaped by human action and unintended consequences. - Freeden’s Contextualism: - Michael Freeden's work focuses on understanding the semantic field of liberalism, but it needs qualification. He points out that liberalism is shaped and reshaped over time by individuals and groups. - The term "liberal" is often misused by opponents (e.g., American conservatives conflating liberalism with fascism and Marxism). - To avoid over-expanding the definition, only positions affirmed by self-proclaimed liberals over time should be included in the liberal tradition. - Inclusion Criteria: - A position should be included in the liberal tradition if it has sustained usage by prominent ideological figures over at least two generations. - For example, libertarianism and social democratic arguments meet this criterion, but H.G. Wells's "liberal fascist" claim does not. - Temporal Dimension: - The liberal tradition includes arguments that may have been labeled as liberal at one time but rejected later. This means imperialist, suffrage-limiting, and eugenicist arguments are part of the liberal tradition, along with their rejections. - Liberalism as Contradictory: Liberalism is a multi-faceted, contradictory tradition, containing arguments that have evolved over time and reflect the ideological debates and divisions within it. - Distinction Between Identity and Doctrine: - The distinction is made between self-identification as a liberal (or another ideology) and employing arguments that fit within the liberal tradition. - For example, an American Tea Party member may oppose liberalism but still espouse neo-classical economic and liberal democratic principles. - Blurring of Traditions: - The summative conception dissolves the idea of clear boundaries between political traditions. Many individuals adopt positions from different traditions, and values like liberty and equality can no longer be classified as exclusively liberal or conservative. - Losurdo’s Counter-History: - Domenico Losurdo’s counter-history of liberalism emphasizes the relationship between liberalism and social practices like slavery and imperialism. His critique is based on the claim that liberalism supported domination and exploitation in British and American societies. -

Types of Scholarly Responses: - Prescriptive: Specifies norms or core features of liberalism, claiming authenticity for a particular version (e.g., Shklar, Waldron). - Comprehensive: Maps the broad range of liberal languages without favoring one conception, examining the variation over time and space. - Explanatory: Accounts for the development of liberalism, exploring why and how various liberal ideologies evolved. Methodological Protocols in Constructing Liberalism: - Stipulative: Defines necessary conditions for being considered "liberal" (e.g., focus on liberty, authority, autonomy, equality). This approach often ignores the historical complexities and focuses more on abstract concepts. - Canonical: Constructs liberalism around a set of canonical thinkers (e.g., Locke, Kant, Mill, Rawls), interpreting the tradition through their works. However, this method risks oversimplifying liberalism’s diversity by focusing on a few individuals. - Contextualism: Emphasizes the historical and political contexts in which liberal ideas evolved, rejecting the idea of a static liberal tradition that can be traced back to the 17th century. Limitations of Stipulative and Canonical Approaches: - Stipulative Protocols: Can oversimplify liberalism by generalizing too much or by focusing too narrowly on specific concepts (e.g., liberty, equality). These definitions often fail to account for the deep divisions within liberalism. - Canonical Protocols: Tend to generalize from the works of a few thinkers and ignore the internal diversity, regional variations, and evolution of liberal ideas. Critique of Canonical Approaches: - Can create an artificial intellectual "canon" that is shaped by historical and academic conventions rather than the actual diversity of liberal thought. - Studying the process of how these canonical figures were selected can reveal more about the evolution of political thought than simply analyzing their texts. Contextualist Approaches: - Focus on the historical and political contexts of early modern political thought, arguing that "liberalism" did not exist as a coherent ideology in the 17th century. - Scholars like John Dunn, J.G.A. Pocock, and Quentin Skinner argue that earlier political thinkers, like Locke, should not automatically be viewed as foundational liberals. - This approach rejects the assumption that liberalism has a trans-historical essence, focusing instead on how liberal ideas have changed over time. Michael Freeden's Contextualist Approach: - Liberalism is seen as a flexible and evolving semantic field, shaped by various groups and individuals over time. - Freeden critiques both contemporary libertarianism and Rawlsian social liberalism, arguing that these lack the attributes of "established" liberalism. - While rejecting a fixed essence of liberalism, Freeden still identifies certain strands as more mature or genuine manifestations of the ideology, blurring the lines between comprehensive and prescriptive approaches. Key Takeaway: - A fruitful comprehensive contextualist approach should recognize the diversity of liberal traditions, examining how different liberal languages have emerged, evolved, and conflicted across time and regions. This avoids distilling liberalism into an ahistorical set of concepts.

1 Liberalism as a Specter: - It haunts Western political thought and practice, seen either as a desirable telos of history or a nightmare (capitalism, moral relativism). - For most, it represents a comfortable, ambivalent state of living in affluent democratic societies, viewed as the "least worst option." Contradictory Nature of Liberalism: - Defined and construed in manifold ways, often contradictory. - Some see it as a modern project, a normative philosophy, or a hegemonic ideology. - Shklar’s critique: Liberalism has become an “all-purpose word.” Responses to Liberalism's Overextension: - Ignoring the complexity and using the term unreflectively, causing confusion. - Engaging in "boundary work" to demarcate discourse (e.g., classical vs. social liberalism). Liberalism's Historical Narratives: - Seen by some as a tale of rise/decline, triumph/tragedy. - E.g., Leo Strauss: transition from virtuous "ancient" liberalism to debased "modern" liberalism. - Ludwig von Mises and libertarian critiques: decline of classical liberalism into socialism. Progressive Interpretations of Liberalism: - L.T. Hobhouse and John Dewey viewed liberalism's transformation from laissez-faire to government intervention as progress. - Contemporary debates continue between libertarians and social liberals, both claiming to represent "true" liberalism. Extracting Liberalism's Core: - Attempts to find liberalism’s core vary: - Shklar: Liberalism aims to secure political conditions necessary for personal freedom. - Waldron: Liberalism requires social conditions to be acceptable to all individuals. - Dworkin: Equality is central to liberalism. - Gerstle: Liberalism rests on rationality, emancipation, and progress. Historical Case Study: - The emergence and transformation of liberalism in Anglo-American thought between 1850 and 1950 is used as an illustrative case. - Section III traces liberalism’s evolution in 19th-century Britain. - Section IV explores how liberalism became central in the West, especially during ideological battles against totalitarianism and developments in social sciences.

Key Postmodern theorists and their core concepts : 1. Jean-François Lyotard: Known for his concept of *incredulity towards metanarratives*. He argues that grand narratives, such as Enlightenment ideals of progress or Marxism, have lost credibility in postmodern society. Instead, postmodernism celebrates multiple, localized narratives. 2. Jacques Derrida: Derrida introduced *deconstruction*, a method of reading texts that reveals contradictions and ambiguities within them. His famous phrase, "there is nothing outside the text," emphasizes the idea that meaning is always mediated by language, and thus reality is constructed through language. 3. Michel Foucault: Foucault explored how *power and knowledge* are intertwined, focusing on how societal institutions (such as prisons, hospitals, and schools) exert control over individuals. He introduced the concept of *discourse* as a way to understand how knowledge is produced and maintained in society. 4. Roland Barthes: Barthes applied *semiotics* (the study of signs) to culture, particularly literature and media. His work on *the death of the author* argues that a text’s meaning comes from its readers, not the intentions of its creator. 5. Fredric Jameson: Jameson contributed to the understanding of *postmodernism as the cultural logic of late capitalism*. He suggests that postmodernism reflects the commodification of culture and the flattening of distinctions between high and low culture in a consumer-driven society. 6. Jean Baudrillard: Baudrillard introduced the idea of *hyperreality*, where symbols and simulations replace reality itself. He argues that in postmodern culture, the distinction between reality and its representation has collapsed. 7. Linda Hutcheon: Hutcheon emphasized *parody and irony* as key features of postmodern literature and art. She discusses how postmodernism challenges traditional ideas of narrative, identity, and history through self-reflexive, ironic works. 8. Richard Rorty: Rorty, a pragmatist philosopher, critiques the postmodern rejection of *truth* and *objectivity*, arguing instead for a practical, pluralistic approach to knowledge that focuses on conversation and solidarity rather than universal truths.These theorists collectively challenge traditional structures of power, knowledge, and representation, promoting a more fragmented and relativistic understanding of reality.

Postmodernism, which opposes rigid frameworks and promotes a more fluid, decentralized understanding of the world.

Postmodernism Incredulity Toward Metanarratives: Postmodernism is characterized by a skepticism toward grand, overarching narratives (such as Marxism or Enlightenment ideals) that claim to explain everything about human experience and history. Pluralism and Relativism: Postmodernist thought embraces a diversity of perspectives, advocating that no single worldview or narrative holds universal truth. Instead, it promotes a multicultural and pluralistic view of society, where different perspectives coexist without a hierarchy of legitimacy. Deconstruction of Truth and Knowledge: Postmodernism challenges the notion of objective truth and universal knowledge. It asserts that knowledge is socially constructed and contingent upon historical and cultural contexts. Critique of Enlightenment Reason: Postmodernists criticize Enlightenment ideals of reason and rationality, viewing them as tools of power and control that repress marginalized groups. Suspicion of Authority and Power: Postmodernism is inherently critical of institutions and systems of power, such as governments, media, and corporations, viewing them as perpetuating dominant ideologies and control through discourse. Fragmentation of Identity: Postmodernism denies the idea of a stable, unified self. Instead, it posits that identity is fluid, socially constructed, and fragmented, influenced by language and culture. Interdisciplinary Approach: Postmodernism often blurs the boundaries between disciplines, merging literature, philosophy, art, and social theory to challenge traditional academic structures. Embrace of Irony and Playfulness: Postmodernism frequently uses irony, pastiche, and playful methods in literature and art to subvert expectations and challenge established norms. Rejection of Progress: Postmodernism is skeptical of the idea of historical progress, rejecting the belief that human history is moving toward an ideal state of perfection or liberation. Anti-Totality and Anti-Hierarchy: Postmodernism resists totalizing explanations or hierarchies, embracing fragmentation and multiplicity as more representative of reality. Deconstruction: Postmodernism often employs deconstruction, a method championed by Jacques Derrida, to show how texts, concepts, and structures undermine their own assumptions and binaries. Language as Constitutive: Rather than seeing language as a tool to represent reality, postmodernists view language as constitutive of reality itself. This challenges ideas of fixed or universal truths. Pastiche and Intertextuality: Postmodern works frequently mix styles and borrow elements from different genres and time periods, creating "pastiche." Intertextuality plays a significant role, where texts reference or are shaped by other texts. Critique of Objective History: Postmodernists challenge the idea of objective, linear history. They see history as a narrative shaped by power relations, thus questioning historical "truths." Playfulness and Irony: Postmodern art and literature often adopt a playful and ironic tone, subverting serious or traditional themes. Identity as Fluid and Performative: Postmodernists argue that identity is not fixed but constructed through language and cultural practices, often performing according to societal norms rather than reflecting an innate self. Technology and Hyperreality: Postmodernists like Jean Baudrillard highlight the blending of reality and simulated reality (hyperreality) in modern life, particularly in media-saturated environments where symbols become more real than reality itself. Critique of Enlightenment Rationality: Postmodernism critiques the Enlightenment emphasis on reason, arguing that it has been used to dominate and marginalize alternative ways of knowing. Globalization and Compression of Time/Space: Postmodernism recognizes how technology, particularly mass media, has compressed time and space, leading to an interconnected yet fragmented world.

Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Herbert Marcuse, Jürgen Habermas, Erich Fromm, Walter Benjamin, Karl Korsch, Georg Lukács, Antonio Gramsci, Axel Honneth.

12. Dialectics of Modernity: The Frankfurt School critiques modernity’s contradictions, particularly how the promises of freedom and progress are subverted by systems of domination. They argue that progress in technology and bureaucracy often leads to more subtle forms of control, rather than the liberation it promised.

Key arguments of critical theory, based on its foundational ideas and critiques: 1. Critique of Enlightenment Rationality: Critical theorists argue that the Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason and progress has been co-opted by capitalist and authoritarian systems, leading to domination rather than liberation. They claim that reason has been instrumentalized—used as a tool for control rather than for human emancipation. 2. Culture as a Tool of Domination: The Culture Industry, a concept developed by Adorno and Horkheimer, argues that mass-produced culture in capitalist societies functions to pacify the masses, preventing critical thinking and reinforcing conformity. It distracts people from real issues by offering superficial entertainment and false fulfillment. 3. Alienation and Reification: Drawing from Marx, critical theory emphasizes how capitalist systems alienate individuals from their labor, their community, and even themselves. Reification refers to the process where social relations are treated as things or commodities, stripping them of their human qualities and history. 4. Instrumental Reason as Oppression: Critical theorists, particularly Adorno and Marcuse, argue that instrumental reason (reason used merely as a tool for efficiency and control) has dominated modern societies. This type of reasoning objectifies people and nature, reducing them to mere resources for exploitation, while ethical and humane considerations are sidelined. 5. Totalitarianism and Technological Rationality: Critical theory argues that modern capitalist societies exhibit traits of totalitarianism, even without overt authoritarian rule. Bureaucracies, technological rationality, and the culture industry work together to suppress individuality and ensure compliance within the system. 6. The Failure of Revolution: Critical theorists critique both capitalist and Marxist revolutions. While they see the potential in Marxist thought, they argue that Marxism’s deterministic view of history (e.g., the inevitability of proletarian revolution) is flawed. They believe that Marx underestimated the ability of capitalism to integrate and neutralize revolutionary movements. 7. Need for Utopian Thinking: While critical theorists reject naive utopianism, they argue that utopian thinking is necessary for social critique and change. This involves envisioning alternatives to the current system, keeping alive the hope for a more humane and just society, even if these alternatives are not immediately realizable. 8. Repressive Desublimation: Marcuse argues that modern capitalist societies offer a controlled form of liberation through repressive desublimation. This means that society allows for certain freedoms (e.g., sexual freedom, consumer choice) that do not threaten the system, creating the illusion of liberation while maintaining deeper control. 9. The Importance of Critical Consciousness: Critical theorists stress the importance of developing critical consciousness—the ability to see through societal ideologies and recognize hidden forms of domination. Without critical thinking, individuals are likely to accept oppressive systems as natural or inevitable. 10. Communicative Action as a Path to Rationality: Jürgen Habermas, a later critical theorist, argues that genuine rationality can be achieved through communicative action, where individuals engage in open, free dialogue to reach consensus. Unlike instrumental reason, communicative action values mutual understanding and cooperation rather than control. 11. Critique of Identity and Conformity: Critical theory challenges the way capitalist societies construct identities and enforce conformity. Adorno’s concept of non-identity argues that individuals should resist being fully integrated into societal roles and should maintain their critical distance from the system’s expectations.

10. Totally Administered Society: A concept developed by Adorno and Horkheimer, this refers to a society where every aspect of life is controlled by bureaucratic institutions. It represents a form of totalitarianism under capitalism and technological rationality, where individual freedom is curtailed by systemic administration . 11. Non-Identity: Adorno's idea of non-identity suggests that individuals should maintain a sense of resistance against being fully integrated into society's roles and expectations. It emphasizes the importance of remaining separate from the societal structures that define identity . 12. The Ontology of False Conditions: This refers to the philosophical stance that modern conditions of life, particularly under capitalism, represent a false or distorted reality. The critique involves exposing these false conditions to reclaim human potential and freedom . 13. New Sensibility: Herbert Marcuse developed this concept to highlight the need for a cultural revolution, where aesthetic and emotional aspects of life are reintegrated with politics. This "new sensibility" would allow for greater creativity and liberation from oppressive societal norms . 14. Instrumental Rationality: A key critique within critical theory, instrumental rationality refers to the use of reason solely as a tool for achieving practical goals, often at the expense of ethical or moral considerations. This leads to the dehumanization and objectification of individuals as mere means to ends . 15. Surplus Repression: A term coined by Marcuse, this concept describes the additional repression imposed by modern capitalist societies beyond what is necessary for basic survival. It refers to the unnecessary restrictions on human desires, creativity, and individuality imposed by the structures of power . 16. Utopia: Critical theorists often emphasized utopian thinking, not as a concrete vision of the future, but as a necessary critical tool. Utopian thought helps to challenge existing systems by imagining alternatives, even if they are not fully realizable .

These concepts provide a framework for understanding social, political, and cultural issues. Here’s a list of the major concepts associated with key critical theorists: 1. Alienation: Developed from Marxist theory, alienation refers to the estrangement of individuals from their work, society, and themselves. This concept explains how capitalist modes of production alienate workers from their labor, resulting in a loss of meaning and autonomy . 2. Reification: Reification is the process by which social relationships and human experiences are transformed into objects or commodities. In capitalist society, relationships are increasingly viewed in terms of their economic value, thus "thingifying" human interactions . 3. Culture Industry: Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer introduced this concept to critique mass-produced culture. They argued that under capitalism, culture becomes commodified and serves to reinforce social conformity and control, stifling individuality and critical thinking . 4. Negative Dialectics: Adorno's idea of negative dialectics rejects the traditional Hegelian synthesis, emphasizing instead the persistence of contradictions in society. Rather than resolving these contradictions, critical theory should continue to critique them . 5. Communicative Action: Jürgen Habermas developed this concept, focusing on how individuals communicate in the public sphere. He emphasized "undistorted communication" and the need for open, rational dialogue to achieve consensus and mutual understanding . 6. Instrumental Reason: This concept critiques the way modern societies use rationality purely as a tool for achieving practical ends, often at the expense of ethical considerations. It reduces human activity to a means-ends calculation, reinforcing domination . 7. One-Dimensional Man: Herbert Marcuse introduced this idea to describe how advanced industrial societies create a type of individual who conforms to the dominant social order and lacks critical thinking. The individual is integrated into a system that satisfies basic needs, but at the cost of true freedom and creativity . 8. Public Sphere: Habermas conceptualized the public sphere as a space for open debate where citizens can discuss societal issues and influence political action. However, he argued that this space has been eroded by the rise of mass media and consumer culture . 9. Hegemony: Though not exclusive to the Frankfurt School, the concept of hegemony, drawn from Antonio Gramsci, is central to understanding how power is maintained through cultural leadership and consent rather than through coercion alone . These concepts are interconnected and reflect the Frankfurt School's critique of capitalism, modernity, and culture. They form the foundation of critical theory's ongoing effort to critique and transform society.

Active Reading Guide Ask yourself pre-reading questions. For example: What is the topic, and what do you already know about it? Why has the instructor assigned this reading at this point in the semester? Identify and define any unfamiliar terms. Bracket the main idea or thesis of the reading, and put an asterisk next to it. Pay particular attention to the introduction or opening paragraphs to locate this information. Put down your highlighter. Make marginal notes or comments instead. Every time you feel the urge to highlight something, write instead. You can summarize the text, ask questions, give assent, protest vehemently. You can also write down key words to help you recall where important points are discussed. Above all, strive to enter into a dialogue with the author. Write questions in the margins, and then answer the questions in a reading journal or on a separate piece of paper. If you’re reading a textbook, try changing all the titles, subtitles, sections and paragraph headings into questions. For example, the section heading “The Gas Laws of Boyle, Charles, and Avogadro” might become “What are the gas laws of Boyle, Charles, and Avogadro?” Make outlines, flow charts, or diagrams that help you to map and to understand ideas visually. See the reverse side for examples. Read each paragraph carefully and then determine “what it says” and “what it does.” Answer “what it says” in only one sentence. Represent the main idea of the paragraph in your own words. To answer “what it does,” describe the paragraph’s purpose within the text, such as “provides evidence for the author’s first main reason” or “introduces an opposing view.” Write a summary of an essay or chapter in your own words. Do this in less than a page. Capture the essential ideas and perhaps one or two key examples. This approach offers a great way to be sure that you know what the reading really says or is about. Write your own exam question based on the reading. Teach what you have learned to someone else! Research clearly shows that teaching is one of the most effective ways to learn. If you try to explain aloud what you have been studying, (1) you’ll transfer the information from short-term to long-term memory, and (2) you’ll quickly discover what you understand — and what you don’t.

One thing at a time—Current research shows us that multi-­‐tasking is a myth. In actuality, we are switching back and forth between tasks. With each switch we pay a cognitive cost and a time cost: It takes time to get mentally back into the task, thus making us less efficient. When switching we lose the depth of our engagement, absorption.

Block out time—devote, on a regular basis, chunks of time to a specific class. Make it part of your schedule, your routine. Estimate how many hours per week you want to devote to a class. Set aside this many hours for working tasks in the course Slice up your task into pieces and allow specific blocks of time for specific pieces of a big project. First Things First—if you can do so, schedule the things that are most important to you first thing in the day, or at the first available time slot. Anything that gets scheduled later in the day has a greater chance of getting interrupted, put off and never gotten to. You won’t be thinking or worrying about your work during your leisure time if you get academic tasks done first.

Time Efficiency Try to use waiting time to review notes or do practice problems. Learn and practice specific reading strategies. They will help you comprehend, study and remember better. Consider how you might use smaller pockets of time more efficiently. Work in 45 minutes to 1.5 hour chunks then take a break to avoid the exhaustion that comes from overexertion. Concentrate on one task at a time.

Task Management Maintain and develop a list of specific things to be done each day. Prioritize that list and complete the most urgent tasks at the start of day. At day's end, briefly evaluate your progress. Look ahead to the next few weeks/month to better schedule your time. Set incremental deadlines for longer-term projects.

Procrastination is our way of coping with negative emotions associated with certain tasks, think boredom, anxiety, insecurity, frustration, self-doubt, etc. Because we associate a task with negative emotions, our brain perceives it as a threat and will aim to remove the threat in the present. HOW CAN WE PIVOT FROM PROCRASTINATION TO TASK INITIATION? 1. Self-compassion Have compassion for yourself in the moments that you do procrastinate. This will allow you to move past previous maladaptive behavior and focus on upcoming tasks. Self-compassion also offers a buffer against negative reactions to events. 2. Cultivate Curiosity If you feel tempted to procrastinate, pay attention to the sensations in your mind and body. What feelings elicit the temptation? What happens to the thought of procrastinating as you observe your feelings? 3. Consider the Next Action Motivation follows action, so thinking about the next action opens up the possibility of tackling your task in the present. For example, if you were to start on your paper, maybe the next action would be opening up Canvas to look at the rubric. 4. Make your temptations more inconvenient It's easier to change our circumstances than ourselves. If you're tempted to take a nap, work at a table somewhere far away from your dorm. If you're tempted to check social media, put your phone at the bottom of your backpack.