40's Hacks 💀✨

Midbrain

⭐️ External features: ✨🚨mid Brain divided into ventral ( cerebral peduncle) and dorsal ( tectum ) by cerebral aqueduct of sylvius ✨ Ventral aspect: •🚨 divided into : Ant >>> post: Crus cerebri >> Substantia nigra >> tegmentum •🎀 between 2 cerebral peduncles there is :🚨 interpeduncular fossa which contains: •interpeduncular cisterna ( dilation between arachnoid & pia ): housing circle of Willis • oculomotor fibers emerge through it. •🎀 substantia nigra : formed of pars Reticulata ( GABA) , pars compacta (Dopamine) • regulation of B.G, secretion of striatal dopamine •🎀 tegmentum :🚨 the post part of ventral portion midbrain 4 nuclei (METR) •M = Motor nucleus >> at level of sup. Colliculus >> give oculomotor fibers that exit from interpeduncular fossa • E= EWN >>parasympathetic for oculomotor>> relay in ciliary ganglion • T = trochlear nucleus>> at the level of inf. Colliculus, give fibers of Trochlear N that cross & exit from the back of Midbrain •🚨 R = red nucleus: gray matter at the level of sup. Colliculus pierced by Oculomotor fibers, control ms.tone. ✨ Midbrain dorsal aspect= tectum behind cerebral aqueduct. • 🚨 formed by 4 colliculi •🚨 sup. Colliculus: center for visual reflex, connected to LGB by superior brachium •🚨 inf. Colliculus : center for auditory reflexes forming part of central auditory pathway , connected to MGB by inf. Brachium • trochlear nerve fibers exit below level of inf. Colliculus في قاعدة مهمة اتقالت في أول المسدچ أن أي CN fibers exit from ventral of brain stem ولكن في استثناء وهو يكاد يكون أهم من القاعدة : 🚨Trochlear nerve fibers exit from the back of midbrain below inf colliculus. وبس ده كل حاجة مهمة اتقالت في المحاضرة.

✨ brain stem ✨

ملاحظات وتأكيدات الشرح في المدرج ، دي مجرد الحاجات اللي الدكتور ركز عليها بشكل الاسئلة المحتملة فيها ، لكن هل اكيد مش هيجيب حاجة برا عنهم ؟ معنديش فكرة ،انا بس كتبت دول عشان لو حد مش واخد باله منهم يركز عليهم وإن شاء الله اليوم يعدي على خير.

Medulla oblongata

⭐️ends at the level of foramen Magnum ⭐️ Open medulla forming the floor of 4th ventricle ⭐️ Ventral aspect: •3 elevations Medially to laterally : Pyramid >> olive >> inf.cerebellar peduncle • exit of lower 4 cranial nerves: CN 12 >> antero lateral sulcus ( between Pyramid & olive) 9,10,11 >> postero lateral sulcus ( between olive & ICP) ⭐️ Dorsal aspect: 🎀 Open medulla : 3 trigons separated by inf.fovea Medial >> lateral (12,10,8) Hypoglossal 12 > vagal 10 > inf. Vestibular 8 🎀 Closed medulla : 3 elevations on each side of post.median sulcus Medial >> lateral Gracile tubercle > cuneate tubercle > tuberculum cinereum " spinal n. Of trigeminal" 🚨 Notes: • pyramid occupied with corticospinal tract only , motor fibers partially crossed at the lower of closed medulla. ( Motor decussation) • ✨sensory decussation is complete by arcuate fibers ( gracile & cuneate axons) above motor decussation , ascending Crossed fibers forming medial lemniscus that Carry contralateral general somatic sensations body,  ascend & relay in PLVNT. •✨ gracile & cuneate tracts ascend ibsilateral to their nucleus in the M.O Arcuate fibers ( axons) of them decussate • gracile, cuneate >> proprioception & fine touch ✨gracile > lower 1/2 Cuneate> upper 1/2 •tuberculum cinereum > pain & temp. face • exit of cranial nerve fibers at ventral aspect, the nuclei are at the dorsal aspect • inf. Olivary nucleus axons cross forming Olivo cerebellar tract ( climbing fibers) • nucleus Ambiguous >> motor to CN 9,10,11 >> supply all ms pharynx larynx soft palate EXCEPT tensor palati

Pons

⭐️ External features: 🎀 Ventral aspect = basis pontis •transverse horizontal fibers at ventral aspect >> transverse streaks ( pontocerebellar fibers) for middle cerebrallar peduncle • trigeminal nerve at anterolateral surface •🚨 abducent N. >> Between pons & pyramid • facial & Vestibulocochlear nerves >> cerebellopontine angle ( between pons & ICP) 🎀 Dorsal aspect = tegmentum •🚨 Triangular in shape •🚨transverse horizontal fibers at dorsal aspect >> Stria medullaris ( separate back M.O from back Pons) •🚨 bounded laterally by sup.cerebellar peduncle • medial eminence by abducent nucleus •🚨 facial colliculus  by abducent nucleus + arched facial fibers ✨ Notes internal structure of pons : • have cranial nuclei of CN 5,6,7,8 • trigeminal nuclei: Spinal nucleus>> M.O Main sensory>> pons Mesencephalic >> mid brain •🚨 sup salivatory nucleus>> pons >> parasympathetic facial •Inf. salivatory nucleus>> M.O >> parasympathetic glossopharyngeal •🚨 sup. Olivary nucleus>> pons >>  receive crossed fibers of (cochlear nucleus / trapezoid body ) >> lat.Lemniscus (hearing pathway) >> localization of sound direction •Inf olivary >> M.O >> form Olivo cerebellar tract>> motor learning & coordination • vestibular nuclei (4) 🚨 Sup + lat >> pons 🚨 Inf + medial >> M.O All for Vestibular apparatus & equilibrium. ✨🚨 4 sensory lemnisci ( at tegmentum) وعشان نريح دماغنا دي قاعدة معروفة اي lemniscus بياخد contralateral ف حتى لو مكتبهاش للاختصار دي حاجة معروفة بالبديهة 🎀 Lat. Lemniscus : •🚨primary hearing pathway, receive from contralateral sup. Olivary nucleus, ends in inf. Colliculus of mid brain >> MGB ( thalamus) >> localization of sound direction & hearing sensation 🎀 Spinal lemniscus : • receive from SGR & nucleus of proprius of spinal cord ( Lat & ventral column) >>PLVNT> pain, temp, crude touch contralateral Body 🎀 Trigeminal lemniscus : •receive from spinal nucleus & main sensory nucleus>>PMVNT >> contralateral somatic sensation face & head  🎀 Medial lemniscus : • receive gracile & cuneate >>end in PLVNT > contralateral proprioception body Midbrain

⭐️ Mechanism of hearing:

1-🎀Sound Transmitted from outside till reaching inner ear ✨ Main pathway: ossicular conduction >> through ear drum, ossicles " Impedance matching" >> efficient ✨ Air conduction: vibration of 2ry tympanic membrane of round window in damage of middle ear >> inefficient ✨ Bone conduction : skull vibration ( hearing testing) >> inefficient ---- 2-🎀 hair cells stimulation " receptor potential" • vibration of perilymph>> vibration of basilar membrane up & down •🚨 moving up : stereocilia away from limbus ( towards kinocilia) >> depolarization by K influx >> release of glutamate/ aspartate ( excitatory NT) >> stimulation of afferent fibers. Inhibition by moving down & hyperpolarization --- 3-🎀 AP transmission " auditory pathway" •Receptor : inner hair cells organ of corti •1st order neurone : cells of spiral ganglion ( cochlea N.) • 2nd order : dorsal & ventral cochlear nuclei (M.O) >> bypass many nuclei one of them is nucleus of Lat. Lemniscus •🚨3rd order: MGB ( thalamus) • center: auditory cortex ( temporal lobe) ✨ primary auditory area ( 41,42) > sound recognition & localization. • lesion : partial hearing loss of opposite side if Unilateral, severe of both if bilateral ✨2ry auditory area (22) : understanding & interpretation • lesion: loss of interpretation of meaning. --- 4-🎀 auditory encoding= discrimination frequency, intensity & pattern.

✨ discrimination of frequency :

by 3 theories قبل م اقول الملاحظات اللي فيهم خلينا عارفين حاجة مهمة : •Basilar membrane is V shaped • long lax fibers at the apex of cochlea, short stiff fibers at the base . 1-🎀 place Theory ✨ Frequency discrimination in the cochlea not in auditory cortex ✨🚨Major determinant frequency ( pitch ) is the place of organ of corti ✨ High frequency sounds stimulate only short fibers at the base ✨ Low pitched sounds stimulate only long fibers at the apex (Basilar membrane fibers are grouped) 2-🎀🚨🚨traveler wave theory: ✨Frequency discrimination in the cochlea ✨🚨determinant: distance the waves travel within the perilymph •waves are of high pitch >> max. Stimulation of short fibers near the base • low pitched >> max. Stimulation of long fibers near the apex 3-🎀 tonotopic organization: ✨Frequency discrimination in the auditory pathway ✨ Discrimination by spatial organization

✨ Intensity (loudness) discrimination

⭐️ By auditory cortex

✨ Locality discrimination

⭐️ By ear pinna ⭐️ Sound is louder to the ear closer to the source

✨ Pattern discrimination

⭐️by auditory cortex

✨ Hearing ✨

⭐️ Frequency= pitch 🚨 Depend on wave length 🚨 Measured in Hz ✨ Range of hearing = 20 : 20,000 Hz ✨ Males with low pitched voice, females with high pitched voice. ⭐️ Intensity ( amplitude) 🚨 Measured in dB ✨ Standard sound = sound just heard by normal human ear = just audible 🚨 intensity of standard sound= 0 db ⭐️ quality ( timbre) = depend on wave form

External ear

✨auricle ( pinna ) >> sound collection & direction , rotation reflex for sound localization ✨ External auditory meatus >> • sound amplification & conduction • protection by wax & hair ✨ Tympanic membrane : characterized by :🚨 🌬 elastic, tense, resonant (can vibrate) 🚨aperiodic & damped ( once sound waves stop >> vibration stop)

Middle ear

✨ Air filled cavity 🌬 Contents : 🎀 3 ossicles : • malleus, incus ,stapes •🚨 magnification of sound by 1,3 times ( lever like action) --- 🎀 3 ms : 2 inside , 1 outside • 🚨Tensor tempani >> supplied by Trigeminal N. >> Contraction tenses ear drum for optimum vibration • stapedius ms >> supplied by facial >> contraction as a result for attenuation reflex. ( Protective reflex) 🚨 Lesion of facial / trigeminal >> sound hyperacusis • tensor palati >> outside middle ear cavity. --- 🎀 3 openings : •🚨 Round window >> closed by 2nd Tympanic membrane that is elastic ( related to Cochlear duct and basilar membrane ) >> movement 2ry to perilymph vibration >> creat potential space for waves transmission >> elasticity loss leads to hearing loss •🚨 oval window >> covered by foot plate stapes >> large surface area ratio between oval windo and tympanic membrane magnify sounds by 17 times • opening of eustachian tube >> usually closed . --- 🎀 Functions: ✨ Sound Transmission from external to internal ear ✨🚨 Impedance matching through sound magnification by 22 times to overcome perilymph inertia (1,3 times ossicles, 17 times surface ratio ear drum & ovale window). ✨ Optimum vibration by continuous tense though the contraction of tensor tempani ✨ Equalization of pressure on both sides of ear drum by eustachian tube >> prevention of ear drum rupture in descent by chewing " eustachian tube opening" ✨ Creat potential space for waves transmission by 2ry tympanic membrane of round window ✨🚨 Attenuation ( acoustic - tympanic) reflex " Polysynaptic reflex" >>" long conduction delay so ineffective of sounds of extreme onset as gunshots" 🌬 Stimulus: loud sound 🌬🚨 Reflex: stapedius ms Contraction >> protective reflex for inner ear

Inner ear

⭐️ Auditory labyrinth is the cochlea , non auditory is vestibular apparatus

⭐️ Cochlea

✨ Have organ of corti >> located in the basilar membrane at the cochlea duct. ✨ Afferent by cochlear N., efferent by sup. Olive fibers ✨ Formed by 2 types of hair cells ( mechanoreceptors) 🎀Inner hair cells : medial,1 row , more afferent fibers , less number of cells & less Efferent fibers , auditory receptors 🎀 Outer hair cells : lateral, 3 rows ,less afferent fibers , more number of cells & more Efferent fibers , contractile tensing basilar membrane so improve hearing by affecting vibration of basilar membrane ⭐️ Mechanism of hearing:

⭐️ Limbic system

✨ Formed by Limbic lobe ( old cortex ) & subcortical structures ✨ Stria terminalis connects thalamus with amygdala. ✨🚨 Closed Papez circuit 🌬 Function in memory ( reverberating circuit "after discharge") 🌬🚨 Hippocampus >> Mammillary body (hypothalamus) >> ant. Thalamic nucleus >> cingulate gyrus ( limbic lobe) >> para hippocampal gyrus >> back to hippocampus 🔁 حفظها بالترتيب مهم وهي نفسها مهمة🙏🏻 🌬 For significant memories storage : Hippocampus >> Mammillary body (hypothalamus) >> ant. Thalamic nucleus >>neocortex & amygdale 🌬 Memories are stored in neocortex 🌬 Emotional response to memories by amygdala 🌬 Hippocampus is the center of memory encoding Functions of limbic system ✨ memories & learning ( see back) -- ✨ Olfaction: •🚨 Perception by pyriform cortex • emotional response, memories by amygdala • orbitofrontal cortex >> conscious analysis of odors --- ✨3 Behaviors : ( feeding, sexual , maternal ) 🌬 Feeding: amygdala differentiate between edible & inedible food 🌬 sexual: 🚨innate desire and reactions by amygdala 🚨 Control sexual behavior by orbitofrontal cortex " Sexual desire controlled by amygdala & neocortex" 🌬maternal behavior: • by cingulate & retrosplenial gyri + oxytocin facilitate maternal behavior -- ✨ 3 emotions ( fear ,rage, placidity ) •🚨 emotion: strong feeling associated with autonomic & endocrinal changes • the center of emotions is in the hypothalamus 🌬 Fear : • sense of insecurity , associated with sympathetic changes + somatic response to escape, avoid • center in Periventricular nucleus in the hypothalamus • amygdala ↑fear 🚨Periventricular nucleus secret endorphins that block pain sensation >> allow efficient escape without feeling of pain 🌬 Rage : • violent anger , associated with sympathetic changes + somatic response to attack & fight • center in lat. Nucleus in the hypothalamus •🚨 amygdala ↑rage , 🚨neocortex ↓↓↓rage 🚨Sham rage : exaggerated rage in response to minor stimulus >> caused by : lesion in neocortex or ventromedial nucleus ( placidity center) , stimulation of amygdala) 🌬 Placidity : • extreme calmness >> no response • center in the ventromedial nucleus in the hypothalamus •🚨 amygdala ↓↓↓placidity -- ✨ Control autonomic functions ✨ Control endocrinal functions --- ✨ Motivation >> force activate behavior to achieve a certain goal • motivation can be by reward or punishment 🌬Reward system: •🚨 center in the lat. and ventromedial nuclei of hypothalamus • stimulation leads to approach reaction ( repeat the rewarding stimulus) •🚨 Dopamine is the transmitter for reward system ( secretion as a result to stimulation ) •🚨 cocaine induce dopamine secretion with no motivated stimulus >> euphoria & addiction 🌬 Punishment system: •🚨 center in the periventricular nuclei of hypothalamus ( associated with fear) • stimulation leads to avoidance reaction ( avoid the punishment stimulus)

⭐️🚨kluver Bucy syndrome

( damage of amygdala in both sides by temporal lobe damage) • hyperphagia, omniphagia ,hyperorality • hypersexuality in males • placidity, No fear or rage • depression of memory

✨Thalamus, limbic system, hypothalamus ✨

⭐️ thalamus ( secretary of C.C)

✨sensory center for all sensations ( all 2nd sensory order neurons cross & relay in thalamus) Except Olfaction ✨ Mainly sensory center with only 1 motor nucleus ( VL) ✨ Classified into 6 groups physiologically 🎀 Non specific nuclei

🌬 Midline, intralaminar nuclei

🌬Receive from RAS 🌬 project to All C.C 🌬🚨 Function: • wakefulness ( arouse reaction) • perception propriopathic sensations ( Crude touch , slow burning pain, extremes of temperature "causing pain" ) 🎀 Specific nuclei "cortical relay"

🌬PLVNT , PMVNT

🌬Receive from : •🚨 spinal, medial lemniscus "Body" >>PLVNT •🚨 Trigeminal lemniscus " face" >> PMVNT 🌬 project to somatic sensory area C.C 🌬🚨 Function: epicritic Somatic sensation "general sensation " , discrimination of stimuli with different threshold

🌬MGB ,LGB

🌬Receive from : •🚨 auditory pathway >>MGB •🚨 Visual pathway>> LGB 🌬 project to auditory, visual cortex 🌬 Function: realy auditory, visual sensations 🎀others

🌬VL nuclei

🌬🚨 Only motor nucleus 🌬 Receive ibsilateral BG " slow move." , Contralateral neo cerebellum " fast move." 🌬 Project to motor CC 🚨VL is the only connection between BG, neo cerebellum and motor C.C by (cortico Ponto dentato Thalamo cortical ) pathwar

🌬Ant.nucleus

🚨 The only thalamic nucleus involved in the limbic system 🌬 Receive from hypothalamus 🌬 Project to limbic system 🌬Recent memories , emotions

🌬 Dorsolateral , dorsoventral

🌬Receive from : other thalamic nuclei 🌬 project to : •🚨Dorsolateral >> prefrontal lobe >> personality, behavior •🚨dorsoventral >> cortical association areas >> intellectual cortical functions ( speech, painting..etc)

🎀 Thalamic syndrome

✨stroke in thalamogeniculate artery >> lesion of lateral & venteral nuclei as have No anastomosis ✨C.P >> opposite side of the body ✨🚨 PLVNT >> •contralateral hemianaesthesia , intact facial sensation • permanent loss epicritic sensation • protopathic sensations recovered after few months ( relay in non specific nuclei) with severe pain >> thalamic pain / thalamic hyperpathia ✨🚨 VL >> motor hemiparesis + asthenia ✨ Loss of epicritic sensation+ VL lesion (motor) >> mixed ataxia ✨ emotional disturbance ✨🚨 Intact ant. , medial nuclei

⭐️ Limbic system

Click here✨

⭐️ Hypothalamus

✨ Get afferents from : limbic system , BG, thalamus, Reticular formation, Retina " supra chiasmatic nucleus" ✨ Give efferents : 🌬 Upward >> Papez circuit 🌬 Downward >> (Reticular formation) brain stem, spinal cord 🌬 Laterally >> post. Pituitary Functions: مهم نحفظ كل nucleus بتعمل ايه ولما تيجي اسئلة في الامتحان في الجزء ده بالذات معلش نركز هو عايز nucleus بتعمل ايه ولا lesion هو اللي نتيجته ايه ✨ Post. nucleus >>↑sympathetic(V.C), wakefulness (ARAS fibers) , heat gain center 🚨 If injuried >> prolonged sleeping, narcolepsy 🚨 Irritation >> insomnia ✨Ant. nucleus >>↑parasympathetic (V.D), may contain sleeping center, heat loss center ✨🚨Lat. Nucleus: عشان نبصمجها ف واحنا بناكل بنشرب بردو، وفي الاخر بندي الريڤيو ونقول الأكل زي الفل >>↑sympathetic, feeding center, thirst center الفل : f= feeding , L= Lat.nucleus ✨ Ventromedial nucleus: satiety center سدة النفس بتخلي الأكل زي السم السم: s= satiety center, m= ventromedial ✨🚨Supra chiasmatic nucleus >> control diurnal rhythm by retionhypothalamic fibers ✨ Supra optic , PARAventricular nuclei (ant. Group) >> ↑ADH secretion >> ↓water loss ✨ hypothalamic hypophyseal portal circulation ( HHPC) >>Control ant.pituitary ✨hypothalamic hypophyseal tract ( HHT) >>Control post.pituitary 🌬 Hypothalamus lesions >> symptoms vary according to site of lesion .

Lesions المنهج كله

تجميعة ال reflexes اللي بتحصل في كل lesion

Micro 4 Tetanus, botulism & prions

Micro 3 - brain abscess & poliomyelitis

✨ visual process ✨

المحاضرة تبان صغيرة بس اسئلتها بتبقى في تفاصيل التفاصيل فناخد بالنا من كل حاجة قبلها🚨 -- •Receptors: photoreceptors ( rods & cons ) • 1st order neurone : bipolar cells • 2nd order neurone : ganglion cells • 3rd order neurone : LGB fibers

⭐️Rods

✨ more abundant, mainly in the periphery of retina ✨🚨More photopigment amount >> high sensitivity to light >> scotopic ( dim/ night) vision ✨ Photopigment= rhodopsin / visual purple ( 1 type>> No color perception) ✨🚨 multiple convergence between 1st & 2nd order neurones (200:1)>> low vision acuity

⭐️ Cons

✨ Less abundant, mainly in the Center of retina (🚨fovea centeralis containes cons Only) ✨🚨Less photopigment amount >> low sensitivity to light >> photopic ( bright/ day ) vision ✨ Photopigment= 3 types ( cyanopsin , iodopsin, porphyropsin)>> high color perception) ✨🚨One to one convergence between 1st & 2nd order neurones (1:1)>> high vision acuity

Photo transduction

⭐️ Process by which light energy is converted into receptor potential ⭐️4 steps: ✨ Photochemical changes (bleaching) ✨ electrical response in retina ✨ Excitation cascade ✨ Signal transmission in retina

Photochemical changes (bleaching)

⭐️ photopigments are formed of : 🚨 11 cis retinal + opsin protein ✨ 11 cis retinal >> aldehyde derived from vit. A ✨ Opsin portion determine the type of pigment : Scotopsin >>rhodopsin Photopsin >> 3 types : cyanopsin, porphyropsin , iodopsin. ⭐️🚨cyanopsin >> blue sensitive porphyropsin>> red sensitive iodopsin >> green sensitive ⭐️ photopigment rods (rhodopsin) = 11 cis retinal+ scotopsin ⭐️photopigment cons = 11 cis retinal+ photopsin Rhodopsin visual cycle: ✨Stimulation of rhodopsin with Dim light ✨ Degradation on light to : 11 cis retinal+ scotopsin 🎀scotopsin stored in retina 🎀🚨11 cis retinal trasformed to Meta rhodopsin 2 by photo isomerization ( bleaching ) ✨🚨Meta rhodopsin 2 = activated rhodopsin >> excitatory, activating Transducin ( protein turning photos into electrical impulses) 🌬 اللي جي في الضلمة ✨🚨 Meta rhodopsin 2 transformes to all trans retinAl in Dark ✨all trans retinal trasformed to: 1-🎀all trans retinol by dehydrogenase >> pass to blood 2-🎀 11 cis retinal by isomerase -- ⭐️ Cone pigment: same cascade but stimulated by Bright light ⭐️🚨In both: Degradation at light , regeneration at dark -- ⭐️vit .A deficiency : ✨🚨Nyctalopia ( light blindness) ✨Degradation of cones •Prolonged deficiency>> degradation of retina + xerophthalmia ttt: vit.A supplements (in cases of Liver diseases ( obstructive jaundice) >> given parenteral not oral) ⭐️Vit.B5 (nicotinamide) >> part of NAD >>Coenzyme for retinol dehydrogenase ( deficiency leads to impaired pigment regeneration)

⭐️Genesis of electrical response in retina

⭐️The electrical response is formed at the rest state (🚨 cell at RMP) اللي جي مهم (أغلبه في الكتاب على هيئة صور) 🚨in Dark resting : RMP = -40 >> Depolarization of photoreceptor cells >> cells secrete glutamate ( act as inhibitory neurotransmitter )>> inhibit bipolar cells by Dark current 🚨 Dark current of photoreceptor cell : ✨ Inner segment of the cell >> Na outflow by Na-K pump ✨ Outer segment >> Na inflow passively ⭐️Excitation cascade ✨🚨 Light exposure >> hyperpolarization of photoreceptor cell >> localized receptor potential "RP" -70/-80mV >>↓glutamate>> No inhibition of bipolar>> bipolar Depolarization ✨mech. By Excitatory cascade: Na, Ca outflow by activation of ligand gated channels by cGMP نركز على •Excitatory cascade >> excitation cascade of photoreceptor •Dark current>> electrical response genesis. ✨🚨electrical response of retinal fibers is RP ✨RP of rods is longer than cons due to multiple convergence. Signal transmission in retina ✨🚨Signal transmitted from photoreceptor to bipolar in form of RP ( localized,partial ) = depolarization then hyperpolarization ✨🚨conduction of visual Signals depends on electronic conduction يعني بعرف دي إضاءة قوية ولا ضعيفة على حسب كمية electrons اللي بتستقبلها retina 🚨🚨Signal transmission to ganglion cells & amacrine cells by AP ( propagative ) = hyperpolarization then polarization

⚪️CNS⚪️ 🔻Final summaries [ كُن مُحسنًا فيما بقي فلَرُبما تُجزى عن الإحسانِ بالإحسانِ !🤍]

📌Anatomy:

🔺 Meninges 🚨 Notes 🔺 Ear 🚨 Notes 🔺 Spinal cord + PNS 🔺 Brain stem 🔺cerebrum + note 1 ,note 2 ,note 3 🔺 Cerebellum 🔺 visual pathway

📌Physiology

🔺 Sensory cortex 🔺 Motor cortex 🚨 Paralysis lec 9,10 + Gaits& tremors 🔺 Cerebellum 🔺 Vestibular apparatus 🚨 تجميعة directions المحاضرة 🔺 Basal ganglia من اول thalamus دي ملاحظات وتأكيدات د.وجدي في المدرج والحاجات اللي مشهورة في الاسئلة 🔺 Thalamus 🔺 Physiology eye 1 🔺 Physiology eye 2 🔺 Optical system eye 🔺 Visual process 🔺 Hearing mechanism 🔺 Chemical sensation

📌 Microbiology

🔺 Meningitis 1 🔺 Meningitis+ Encephalitis 🔺 Brain abscess + poliomyelitis 🔺 Tetanus, botulism, prions

📌 Parasitology

🔺 protozoa causing CNS infection 2 🔺 helminths 1 🔺parasites infecting eye

📌Histology

🔺Histology cerebrum & cerebellum 🔺 Histology eye

📌Biochemistry

🔺 Brain metabolism

📌 Pathology

🔺 Meningitis + cerebral abscess 🔺 Tumors

📌Pharmacology

🔺 parkinsonism 🔺 epilepsy 🚨 Notes 🔺hypnotics & sedatives

📎 التجميعات والملاحظات

🔺 Lesions ( physiology) 🔺 Physiology eye reflexes 🔺 Blood supply 🔺 Physiology important numbers 🔺Paralysis physiology + Gaits& tremors 🔺ملاحظات وأسئلة المحتوى كله

📎أسئلة مهمة

🔺أسئلة د.سليم + ده مهم عالآخر بالذات في المحاضرات من 9 ل 13 🔺مذكرة فسيو د.عاصم (منزلها للدفعة فور فري) ، لو لينكها مش فاتح معاك ف ده لينك التشانل ، هنشوف من بعد 8. 🔺أسئلة فسيو مهمة 🔺أسئلة فارما مهمة 🔺فاينل 39 🔺مذكرة د.حازم فيها امتحان 37 🔺فاينل 36 تقريباً 🔺أدرينالين 🔺 تجميعة اسئلة بردو ----- متنسوناش من دعواتكم كتير كتير والأهم طبعاً أهلنا في غزة ربنا يتمم عليهم النصر والسودان وأهلنا في كل مكان ربنا ينصرهم ويثبتهم. ربنا يوفقنا ويكرمنا كلنا ونخلص ونطلع منها مجبورين الخاطر 💗.

مساء الخير يا رب تكونوا تمام والدنيا ميسرة معاكم✨ دي المسدج المجمعة لمحتوى الفاينل بس في كام محاضرة لسة يا بيتحط عليهم هايلايتر يا بيتجمع المهم اللي فيهم طيب هينزلوا امتا إن شاء الله ؟ بإذن الله على مدار اليوم لحد بكرة إن شاء الله بالليل هتبقى كل حاجة اكتملت تمامًا. نعتذر على التأخير، دعواتكم بالتيسير ✨

🌷 Lateral ventricles, third ventricle: Choroid plexuses of these ventricles are derived from anterior & posterior choroidal arteries. 🌷Fourth ventricle: Choroid plexus derived from posterior inferior cerebellar artery. 🌷 Tympanic membrane: 📎Outer surface: supplied by deep auricular artery (maxillary artery). 📎 Inner surface: stylomastoid artery (posterior auricular artery). 🌷Blood supply of the labyrinth: 📎 Labyrinthine artery from the basilar artery. 📎Stylomastoid artery from posterior auricular artery. 🌷Blood supply of spinal cord:

Arteries

📌Anterior spinal artery....>> *arises by two branches from Rt & Lt vertebral arteries. * descends in anterior median fissure. *supplies anterior two-thirds of the spinal cord segment. ------------------------ 📌 Rt & Lt posterior spinal arteries......>> *Each arises from vertebral artery. *descends in posterolateral sulcus. *supplies posterior one-third of the spinal cord segment. -------------------------------- 📌Radicular spinal arteries.....>> * arise regionally from vertebral, intercostal, lumbar and lateral sacral arteries. *supply the lower two-thirds of the spinal cord. ----------------------------------- 📌Great anterior radicular artery of Adamkiewicz (arteria radicularis magna) ......>> *arises from the left lower intercostal or upper lumbar arteries. *the major blood supply of lumbar and sacral regions of the spinal cord.

Veins

📌3 anterior spinal veins + 3 posterior spinal veins ➡️ anastamosing network of veins➡️ *The venous channels communicate superiorly with the cranial dural venous sinuses. 🌷Blood supply of internal capsule: 📎Anterior cerebral artery (medial striate branch): supplies anterior part of anterior limb. 📎Middle cerebral artery (lateral striate branch): supplies posterior part of anterior limb, genu , lenticulothalamic part. 📎Anterior choroidal artery: supplies sublenticular, retrolenticular parts. 🌷Blood supply of cerebellum: 📌Posterior inferior cerebellar artery: *arises from the vertebral artery. *supplying the back of the inferior surface of cerebellum. 📌Anterior inferior cerebellar artery: *arises from the basilar artery . *supply anterior part of the inferior surface of cerebellum. 📌Superior cerebellar artery: *arises from the basilar artery. *supplying the superior surface of the cerebellum. 🌷Blood supply of retina: 📎Outer layers :supplied from short posterior ciliary arteries from ophthalamic artery. 📎Inner layers :supplied by central retinal artery.

ال reflexes اللي بتحصل في الeye.

الأرقام في محاضرتين 16,17 دكتور وجدي كان بيقول نركز عليهم.