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🌀♻️Atoms & Molecules♻️🌀 Around 500 BC, an Indian Philosopher Maharishi Kanad, first time postulated the concept of indivisible part of matter and named it ‘pramanu.’ In 1808, John Dalton used the term ‘atom’ and postulated the atomic theory to the study of matter. 🔅Dalton’s Atomic Theory ➖According to Dalton’s atomic theory, all matter, whether an element, a compound or a mixture is composed of small particles called atoms. ➖According to Dalton’s atomic theory, all matters, whether they are elements, compounds, or mixtures, are composed of small particles known as atoms. 🔅Salient features of Dalton’s Atomic Theory ➖All matter is made of very miniscule particles known as atoms. ➖Atom is an indivisible particle, which cannot be created or destroyed through chemical reaction. ➖All atoms of an element are identical in mass and chemical properties whereas, atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties. ➖To form a compound, atoms are combined in the ratio of small whole numbers. ➖In a given compound, the relative number and kinds of atoms are constant. 🔅Atomic Mass ➖The mass of an atom of a chemical element; it is expressed in atomic mass units (symbol is u). ➖The atomic mass is roughly equivalent to the number of protons and neutrons present in the atom. ➖One atomic mass unit is a mass unit equal to the exactly one-twelfth (1/12th) the mass of one atom of carbon-12 and the relative atomic masses of all elements have been calculated with respect to an atom of carbon-12. 🔅Molecule ➖The smallest particle of an element or a compound, which is capable to exist independently and shows all the properties of the respective substance. ➖A molecule, normally, is a group of two or more atoms which are chemically bonded together. ➖Atoms of the same element or of different elements can join (with chemical bond) together to form molecules. ➖The number of atoms that constitute a molecule is known as its atomicity. 🔅Ion ➖A charged particle is known as ion; it could be either negative charge or positive charge. ➖The positively charged ion is known as a ‘cation’. ➖The negatively charged ion is known as an ‘anion.’ 🔅Chemical Formulae ➖A chemical formula of a compound demonstrations its constituent elements and the number of atoms of each combining element. ➖The chemical formula of a compound is the symbolic representation of its Composition. ➖The combining capacity of an element is known as its ‘valency.’ 🔅Molecular Mass ➖The molecular mass of a substance is calculated by taking the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of respective substance. For example, the molecular mass of water is calculated as − ➖Atomic mass of hydrogen = 1u ➖Atomic mass of oxygen = 16 u ➖The water contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. ➖Molecular Mass of Water is = 2 × 1+ 1×16 = 18 u (u is the symbol of molecular mass). 🔅Formula Unit Mass The formula unit mass of a substance is calculated by taking the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of a compound. 🔅Avogadro Constant or Avogadro Number ➖Avogadro was an Italian scientist who had given the concept of Avogadro Number (also known as Avogadro Constant). ➖The number of particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) present in 1 mole of any substance is fixed, and its value always calculated as 6.022 × 1023. ➖In 1896, Wilhelm Ostwald had introduced the concept of ‘mole;’ however, mole unit was accepted to provide a simple way of reporting a large number in 1967. 🔅Law of Conservation of Mass During a chemical reaction, sum of the masses of the reactants and products remains unchanged, which is known as the ‘Law of Conservation of Mass.’ 🔅Law of Definite Proportions In a pure chemical compound, its elements are always present in a definite proportion by mass, which is known as the ‘Law of Definite Proportions.’ ☘☘MUST SHARE WITH FRIENDS ☘☘

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📚📚...............Human Reproduction- Significance of fertilization............📚📚 (a) It provides stimulus for the egg to complete its maturation. (b) It activates the ovum to develop into a new individual by repeated mitotic division. (c) Fertilization restores the diploid number of chromosomes (46 in man) in the zygote by adding male’s haploid set of chromosomes. (d) It makes the egg more active metabolically. (e) It combines the character of two parents and introduces variations. So help in evolution. (f) Sex chromosomes of sperm is either X or Y and helps in sex determination. (g) Fertilization membrane formed after sperm entry, checks the entry of additional sperms. (h) Copulation path sets the axis of division. .......Menstrual Cycle........ (1) Menstruation occurs in human, apes and old world monkeys. (2) Menstruation is bleeding from the uterus of adult females at intervals of one lunar month. (3) Beginning of menstruation or first menstruation is called menarche. (4) The beginning of menstruation varies. It usually occurs between 12 and 15 years. (5) The cycle of events starting from one menstruation till the next one is called Menstrual Cycle. (6) In human females, menstruation is repeated at an average interval of about 28/29 days. (7) One ovum is released (ovulation) during the middle of each menstrual cycle. (8) It is regulated by certain hormones, some of which are secreted by the pituitary gland. (9) The pituitary gland is stimulated by releasing factors produced in the hypothalamus. (10) The hormones produced by the pituitary gland influence the ovaries. The hormones secreted by the ovaries affect the walls of the uterus. Phases of Menstrual Cycle The menstrual cycle consists of following four phases: (1) Menstrual Phase: (i) In a 28 days menstrual cycle,the menses takes place on cycle days 3-5. (ii) The production of LH from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland is reduced. (iii) The withdrawal of this hormone causes degeneration of the corpus luteum and, therefore progestrone production is reduced. (iv) Production of oestrogen is also reduced in this phase. (v) The endometrium of uterus breaks down & menstruation begins. (vi) The cells of endometrium secretions, blood & unfertilised ovum constitutes the menstrual flow. (2) Follicular Phase: (i) This phase usually includes cycle days 6-13 or 14 in a 28 days cycle. (ii) The follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland stimulates the ovarian follicle to secrete oestrogens. (iii) Oestrogen stimulates the proliferation of the endometrium of the uterine wall. (iv) The endometrium becomes thicker by rapid cell multiplication and this is accompanied by an increase in uterine glands & blood vessels. (3) Ovulatory Phase: (i) Both LH & FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle (about 14th day). (ii) Oestrogen concentration in blood increases. (iii) Rapid secretion of LH induces rupturing of graffian follicle and thereby the release of ovum. (iv) In fact LH causes ovulation. (4) Luteal Phase: (i) Includes cycle days 15 to 28. (ii) Corpus luteum secretes progestrone. (iii) Endometrium thickens. (iv) Uterine glands become secretory. Hormonal Control of MC.... (i) FSH stimulates the ovarian follicles to produce oestrogens. (ii) LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progestrone. (iii) Menstrual phase is caused by the increased production of oestrogens. (iv) LH causes ovulation (v) Proliferative phase is caused by the increased production of oestrogens. (vi) Secretory phase is caused by increased production of progestrone.

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Mind Maps English.pdf2.63 MB

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MindMaps Chemistry.pdf10.19 MB

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Mind Maps Hindi.pdf2.01 MB

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MindMaps Chemistry.pdf10.19 MB

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Mind Maps Hindi.pdf2.01 MB

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Mind Maps English.pdf2.63 MB

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Mind Maps Biology.pdf18.83 MB

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〽️What is Electrostatics? Study of stationary electric charges at rest is known as electrostatics. An electroscope is used to detect the charge on a body. Pith ball electroscope is used to detect a charge and to know the nature of the charge. Gold leaf electroscope which was invented by Bennet detects a charge and the nature of the charge and determines the quantity of the charge 〽️Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors ✏️ A body in which electric charge can easily flow through is called conductor (e.g. metals). ✏️ A body in which electric charge cannot flow is called insulator or dielectric. (e.g. glass, wool, rubber, plastic, etc.) ✏️ Substances which are intermediate between conductors and insulators are called semiconductors. (e.g. silicon, germanium, etc) 〽️Dielectric Strength: It is the minimum field intensity that should be applied to break down the insulating property of insulator. ✏️ Dielectric strength of air = 3 x 106 V/m ✏️ Dielectric strength of Teflon = 60 × 106 Vm–1 The maximum charge a sphere can hold depends on the size and dielectric strength of the medium in which the sphere is placed. ✏️ The maximum charge density of a sphere of radius ‘R’ in terms of electric intensity E at a distance in free space is Eε0(R/r)2. ✏️ When the electric field in the air exceeds its dielectric strength air molecules become ionized and are accelerated by fields and the air becomes conducting.

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