UPSC GEOGRAPHY

■ CONTINENT-CONTINENT CONVERGENCE OR THE HIMALAYAN CONVERGENCE #Earthmovements Understanding Continent-Continent Convergence is important to understand the Formation of the Himalayas, the Alps, the Urals and the Atlas Mountains. ◇ In ocean-ocean convergence and continent-ocean convergence, at least one of the plates is denser and hence the subduction zone is quite deep (few hundred kilometres). ◇ At continent-continent convergent margins, due to lower density, both of the continental crustal plates are too light (buoyant) to be carried downward (subduct) into a trench. ◇ In most cases, neither plate subducts or even if one of the plates subducts, the subduction zone will not go deeper than 40 – 50 km. The two plates converge, buckle up (suture zone), fold, and fault.

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◇ Constant volcanism above the subduction zone creates layers of rocks. As this process continues for millions of years, a volcanic landform is created which in some cases rises above the ocean. ◇ Such volcanic landforms all along the boundary form a chain of volcanic islands which are collectively called as Island Arcs (Indonesian Island Arc or Indonesian Archipelago, Philippine Island Arc, Japanese Island Arc etc.). ◇ Orogenesis (mountain building) sets in motion the process of building continental crust by replacing the oceanic crust (this happens at a much later stage. For example, new islands are born around Japan in every few years. After some million years, Japan will be a single landmass because continental crust formation is constantly replacing the oceanic crust). ▪︎JOIN - @upsc_geography_notes

■ OCEAN-OCEAN CONVERGENCE or THE ISLAND-ARC CONVERGENCE #Earthmovements ◇ In Ocean-Ocean Convergence, a denser oceanic plate subducts below a less dense oceanic plate forming a trench along the boundary. ◇ As the ocean floor crust (oceanic plate) loaded with sediments subducts into the softer asthenosphere, the rocks in the subduction zone become metamorphosed (alteration of the composition or structure of a rock) under high pressure and temperature. ◇ After reaching a depth of about 100 km, the plates melt. Magma (metamorphosed sediments and the melted part of the subducting plate) has lower density and is at high pressure. ◇ It rises upwards due to the buoyant force offered by surrounding denser medium. ◇ The magma flows out to the surface. A continuous upward movement of magma creates constant volcanic eruptions at the ocean floor.

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□ MECHANISM OF THE THEORY ◇ According to plate tectonic theory mountains are formed due to collision of two convergent plates. ◇ Mountains are always formed along the destructive plate boundaries. It is obvious that the process of mountain building is associated with destructive plate boundaries of two convergent plates. ◇ The plate tectonic theory envisages the formation of mountains due to compression of sediments caused by the collision of two convergent plate boundaries. ▪︎JOIN - @upsc_geography_notes

■ THEORIES OF MOUNTAIN BUILDING #Mountains ◇ The process of the origin of block mountains, dome mountains, and volcanic mountains (mountains of accumulation) is more or less well understood but the problem of the origin of folded mountains is very much complex and complicated. ◇ Different hypotheses and theories have been postulated from time to time by various scientists for the explanation of the origin of folded mountains but none of them could become commonly acceptable to majority of the scientists. ◇ Recently, plate tectonic theory has to a larger extent solved the problem of mountain building at global scale. □ PLATE TECTONIC THEORY Plate tectonic theory is a comprehensive theory which offers explanations for various relief features and tectonic events viz. mountain building, folding and faulting, continental drift, vulcanicity, seismic events (earthquakes) etc.

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■ CHARACTERSTICS OF FOLDED MOUNTAINS #Mountains ◇ Folded mountains are the youngest mountains on the earth's surface. ◇ The lithological characteristics of folded mountains reveal that these have been formed due to folding of sedimentary rocks by strong compressive forces. ◇ Sediments are found upto greater depths, thousands of metres (more than 12,000 metres). ◇ Folded mountains extend for greater lengths but their widths are far smaller than their lengths. For example, the Himalayas extend from west to east for a length of 2400 km (1500 miles), but their north south width is only 400 km (250 miles). ◇ Folded mountains are generally found in arc shape having one side concave slope and the other side convex slope. ◇ Folded mountains are found along the margins of the continents facing oceans. ▪︎JOIN - @upsc_geography_notes

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