INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

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🔆 INDIA’S MODEL BIT — A DECADE LATER 📍 Why in News? 🟢 India is revising its Model Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT), nearly a decade after the revised model was approved in 2015. 🟢 The Union Budget 2025–26 announced that the model would be revamped to make it more investor-friendly. 🟢 The review reflects both India’s treaty experience and changes in the international investment regime. 📍 Lessons from the 2015 Model BIT 🟢 The 2015 model emerged in the context of concerns over investor–State arbitration, including the White Industries Australia Limited v. Republic of India award (2011). 🟢 It adopted a narrower definition of investment, limited substantive protections and broader regulatory exceptions. 🟢 Investors were required to exhaust judicial and administrative remedies for at least 5 years before initiating treaty arbitration. 📍 India’s Treaty Practice Has Evolved 🟢 New-generation BITs with the UAE and Uzbekistan provide a 3-year period for pursuing local remedies instead of the earlier 5-year requirement. 🟢 The India–Israel BIA, effective July 2026, similarly provides a 3-year period. 🟢 This indicates greater flexibility in India’s investment treaty practice since 2015. 📍 What Should the New Model BIT Address? 🟢 MFN Provision: India should carefully consider whether to include a Most Favoured Nation (MFN) clause and clearly define its scope, particularly regarding dispute settlement. 🟢 Investor–State Dispute Settlement (ISDS): International reforms are moving towards investment facilitation, cooperation, sustainable development and more precisely defined investor protections. 🟢 Dispute Prevention: The new model could strengthen consultation and dispute-prevention mechanisms before arbitration. 🟢 Investor Obligations: The India–Uzbekistan BIT provides an example of placing obligations on investors and defining circumstances in which counterclaims can be made. 📍 Need for Precision & Balance 🟢 Provisions relating to expropriation and Fair and Equitable Treatment (FET) need clear drafting to reduce interpretational uncertainty. 🟢 Sustainable development and responsible investment should be incorporated through clearly expressed legal obligations rather than broad policy declarations. 🟢 The objective should not simply be to favour investors or States, but to create a clear, workable and balanced framework suited to India’s present position. 📍 UPSC Mains Question Q. India’s evolving Bilateral Investment Treaty framework reflects the need to balance investor protection with the State’s regulatory autonomy. Discuss. #InternationalRelations

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🔆 INDIA–SWITZERLAND: NEW AREAS OF COOPERATION 📍 Defence & Nuclear Energy 🟢 India and Switzerland identified new opportunities for cooperation in defence, military exchanges and defence production. 🟢 Both sides also agreed to further deepen cooperation in nuclear energy. 📍 Trade & Investment 🟢 The discussions took place during the first anniversary of the Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) between India and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), which entered into force on 1 October 2025. 🟢 Switzerland invited its companies to invest in India, particularly in capacity building, design and manufacturing. 🟢 Both sides expressed interest in concluding an Investment Protection Agreement and continuing discussions on intellectual property protection. 📍 Migration & Mobility Partnership 🟢 Agreement aims to strengthen cooperation on migration and mobility based on equal treatment principles. 🟢 Focus includes combating irregular migration, human exploitation and trafficking. 🟢 Provides multiple-entry visas for up to 5 years, including stays of up to 6 months per visit. 🟢 Renewable 1-year student permits are also provided. 📍 Exchange of Young Professionals 🟢 Facilitates temporary employment for young professionals in the other country. 🟢 Aims to enhance professional and language skills. 🟢 Covers an exchange of 300 people annually per country, with scope to increase it to 500. 📍 Science & Technology 🟢 Department of Science and Technology (DST) and the Swiss National Science Foundation signed an LoI. 🟢 Objective: promote long-term cooperation between Indian and Swiss research communities. 📍 Other Areas 🟢 Five agreements, including MoUs and Letters of Intent, were signed across different sectors. 🟢 Cooperation also covers transport, mobility and infrastructure, with opportunities for Swiss companies to participate in India. 📍 UPSC MAINS Q. India–Switzerland relations are expanding beyond trade into defence, nuclear energy, mobility and scientific cooperation. Discuss the significance of this diversification. #InternationalRelations

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🔆 IRAQ’S MILITIAS WITHIN THE MILITARY — POPULAR MOBILISATION FORCES (PMF) 📍 Background 🟢 In 2014, Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani issued a fatwa calling on Iraqis to join the fight against the Islamic State (IS) after the group captured Mosul and advanced towards Baghdad. 🟢 This mobilisation led to the expansion of armed groups that became part of the Popular Mobilisation Forces (PMF), also known as Hashd al-Shaabi. 🟢 The PMF played a major role in defeating IS and later became formally integrated into Iraq’s security structure. 📍 Three Broad Currents within PMF 🟢 Iran-aligned factions: Groups such as Badr Organisation, Asaib Ahl al-Haq, Kataib Hezbollah and Harakat Hezbollah al-Nujaba. 🟢 Sistani-aligned shrine units: Including groups such as Abbas Combat Division, Liwa Ali al-Akbar and Imam Ali Combat Division. 🟢 Sadrist-aligned forces: Associated with Muqtada al-Sadr, including Saraya al-Salam (Peace Brigades). 📍 PMF: Scale & Legal Status 🟢 The PMF comprises more than 200,000 fighters, according to the article, with an estimated total strength of around 240,000. 🟢 It has an annual budget of approximately $3.4 billion. 🟢 In 2016, the Iraqi Parliament passed legislation institutionalising the PMF as an independent organisation within Iraq’s armed forces. 🟢 Despite formal integration, several factions have retained independent command structures and political influence. 📍 Tensions with the United States 🟢 Several PMF factions opposed the U.S. military presence in Iraq and demanded American withdrawal. 🟢 The killing of Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis and Iranian General Qassem Soleimani in a U.S. air strike in 2020 intensified tensions. 🟢 Some PMF factions subsequently launched attacks against U.S. forces and American interests. 📍 PMF & the Israel–Iran Conflict 🟢 According to the article, Iran-aligned PMF factions became involved after the U.S. and Israel launched attacks on Iran in February 2026. 🟢 The U.S. reportedly faced difficulty countering the PMF’s decentralised operational tactics and geographical spread. 🟢 The article notes that some factions agreed to refrain from attacks following the U.S. withdrawal from Iraq, while others continued to resist the American presence. 📍 Key Issue for Iraq 🟢 The central challenge is balancing the PMF’s status as part of the Iraqi security apparatus with the continued autonomy and external alignments of some factions. 🟢 The issue directly concerns state sovereignty, monopoly over the use of force, civil-military relations and regional geopolitics. 📍 UPSC Mains Question Q. The institutionalisation of armed militias within state security structures can create challenges for state sovereignty and the monopoly over legitimate force. Discuss with reference to Iraq’s Popular Mobilisation Forces. #InternationalRelations

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🔆 COLBY’S MID-TERM REPORT CARD: WHAT IT MEANS FOR INDIA 📍 U.S. Defence Strategy: Key Shift 🟢 Elbridge Colby, U.S. Under Secretary of War for Policy, has outlined the Trump administration’s evolving defence priorities. 🟢 Four major goals: defend the U.S. homeland, deter China, strengthen allies/partners and rebuild the U.S. defence industry. 🟢 Washington increasingly expects allies to contribute more to regional security, funding, infrastructure and defence capabilities. 📍 A New Bargain with Partners 🟢 Europe is being encouraged to take greater responsibility for its own defence. 🟢 South Korea is expected to do more on the Korean Peninsula. 🟢 Japan and Australia are being encouraged to play a larger role in the Indo-Pacific. 🟢 The U.S. would continue providing advanced capabilities and strategic coordination, while partners contribute greater troops, infrastructure and industrial support. 📍 China & Russia: Central to the Strategy 🟢 China remains the principal strategic concern, particularly regarding the Indo-Pacific and First Island Chain. 🟢 At the same time, the U.S. is negotiating with China on trade and other issues, creating a mix of competition and cooperation. 🟢 Russia remains important because of the war in Ukraine, European security, Russian military power and India’s defence and energy ties with Russia. 📍 What It Means for India 🟢 India’s geographical position, military potential, Indian Ocean location, technological ambitions and Indo-Pacific role make it strategically important to Washington. 🟢 The U.S. increasingly expects India to contribute to regional balance, defence cooperation, technology and supply-chain initiatives. 🟢 India is simultaneously strengthening partnerships with France, Europe, Japan, Australia and Gulf countries, while maintaining important ties with Russia. 📍 India’s Strategic Opportunity 🟢 A stronger network of partnerships gives India greater capabilities and strategic choices. 🟢 India can use its economic scale, military capability, technology, market access and strategic partnerships to build bargaining power. 🟢 The China example shows how economic and technological strength can translate into greater strategic influence. 📍 Way Forward for India 🟢 Strengthen indigenous defence capabilities and reduce excessive external dependence. 🟢 Expand cooperation with the U.S. while preserving strategic autonomy. 🟢 Invest in technology, defence manufacturing and supply chains. 🟢 Build stronger partnerships across the Indo-Pacific, Europe and Gulf. 🟢 The objective should be greater cooperation with Washington without compromising India’s freedom of strategic action. 📍 UPSC Mains Question Q. The evolving U.S. strategy of relying more on capable regional partners presents both opportunities and challenges for India. Discuss. #InternationalRelations

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🔆 MALACCA–SINGAPORE MODEL FOR RESOLVING HORMUZ 📍 Strategic Context 🟢 The Strait of Malacca runs for about 800 km between the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia’s Sumatra, connecting the Andaman Sea with the Strait of Singapore. 🟢 The Strait of Singapore connects the Malacca Strait with the South China Sea. 📍 Malacca–Singapore Experience 🟢 In 1971, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore jointly challenged the notion of the Straits being international waters. 🟢 Indonesia sought greater control over waters around its islands, while Malaysia also asserted 12-nautical-mile territorial seas. 🟢 The three states eventually worked towards a cooperative framework while maintaining territorial sovereignty. 📍 UNCLOS & Transit Passage 🟢 During the formulation of UNCLOS, the UK proposed the concept of “transit passage” through straits connecting the high seas or EEZs. 🟢 It allows ships to pass through such straits in a continuous and expeditious manner. 🟢 UNCLOS addressed concerns of Indonesia and Malaysia regarding security, environmental safety and navigation. 📍 Cooperative Mechanism — 2007 🟢 In 2007, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore, with the international community, established a Cooperative Mechanism based on a tripartite separation scheme. 🟢 A key feature was the Aids to Navigation Fund, supported through voluntary contributions. 🟢 The fund finances navigation aids, hydrographic surveys and safety projects in cooperation with littoral states. 🟢 Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore do not impose fees, tolls or other payments on ships exercising their right of transit passage. 📍 Lessons for Strait of Hormuz 🟢 The Strait of Hormuz has a similar geographical feature: the territorial waters of Iran and Oman intersect. 🟢 The Malacca–Singapore model demonstrates how littoral states and external stakeholders can cooperate while preserving territorial rights. 🟢 In Malacca, the key concern was safe navigation and environmental protection. 🟢 In Hormuz, the central issue is closely linked to Iran’s security concerns. 📍 Way Forward 🟢 A cooperative mechanism involving littoral states and other stakeholders could potentially address navigation, safety and environmental concerns. 🟢 The article highlights that technical parallels exist between the two straits, although Hormuz has a distinct geopolitical and security context. 📌 PRELIMS FOCUS: 🟢 Strait of Malacca — Malay Peninsula + Sumatra 🟢 Strait of Singapore — connects Malacca Strait with South China Sea 🟢 Transit Passage — UNCLOS 🟢 Strait of Hormuz — Iran + Oman ✍️ MAINS PRACTICE How can the Malacca–Singapore cooperative mechanism offer lessons for addressing navigation and security challenges in the Strait of Hormuz? #InternationalRelations