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LAB Notes ๐Ÿ’‰๐Ÿ”ฌ๐Ÿ“–

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ุดุฑุญ ุงู„ู…ุญุชูˆู‰ ุงู„ู†ุธุฑู‰ ู„ู„ุชุญุงู„ูŠู„ ุงู„ุทุจูŠุฉ โ˜บ๏ธ

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๐ŸŸก ู„ู…ุง ุจู†ุทู„ุน ู†ุชุงุฆุฌ ุงู„ุตูุฑุงุก (Bilirubin) ูˆู†ู„ุงู‚ูŠู‡ุง ุนุงู„ูŠุฉุŒ ุจูŠูƒูˆู† ุนู†ุฏู†ุง ุงุญุชู…ุงู„ ู…ู† ุชู„ุงุชุฉ: โœ… ูŠุง ุฅู…ุง ุงู„ู…ุดูƒู„ุฉ ููŠ ุชูƒุณูŠุฑ ูƒุฑุงุช ุงู„ุฏู… โœ… ุฃูˆ
๐ŸŸก ู„ู…ุง ุจู†ุทู„ุน ู†ุชุงุฆุฌ ุงู„ุตูุฑุงุก (Bilirubin) ูˆู†ู„ุงู‚ูŠู‡ุง ุนุงู„ูŠุฉุŒ ุจูŠูƒูˆู† ุนู†ุฏู†ุง ุงุญุชู…ุงู„ ู…ู† ุชู„ุงุชุฉ: โœ… ูŠุง ุฅู…ุง ุงู„ู…ุดูƒู„ุฉ ููŠ ุชูƒุณูŠุฑ ูƒุฑุงุช ุงู„ุฏู… โœ… ุฃูˆ ููŠ ุงู„ูƒุจุฏ ู†ูุณู‡ โœ… ุฃูˆ ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุฑุงุฑุฉ ูˆู…ุฌุฑู‰ ุงู„ุนุตุงุฑุฉ ุงู„ุตูุฑุงูˆูŠุฉ ุทูŠุจ ู†ู…ูŠุฒ ุจูŠู†ู‡ู… ุฅุฒุงูŠโ‰๏ธ 1๏ธโƒฃ ู„ูˆ ุงู„ู€ Total Bilirubin ุนุงู„ูŠ ูˆุงู„ู„ูŠ ู…ุฑุชูุน ู‡ูˆ ุงู„ู€ Unconjugated (Indirect) ูŠุจู‚ู‰ ู‡ู†ุง ุจู†ุชุนุงู…ู„ ู…ุน ู†ูˆุน ู…ู† ุฃู†ูˆุงุน ุงู„ุตูุฑุงุก ุงุณู…ู‡: ๐Ÿ’ฅ ุงู„ุตูุฑุงุก ุงู„ุงู†ุญู„ุงู„ูŠุฉ โ€“ Hemolytic Jaundice ๐Ÿ”น ุฅูŠู‡ ุงู„ู„ูŠ ุจูŠุญุตู„ุŸ ู„ู…ุง ูŠุญุตู„ ุชูƒุณูŠุฑ ููŠ ูƒุฑุงุช ุงู„ุฏู… ุงู„ุญู…ุฑุงุก โžก๏ธ ูŠุฎุฑุฌ ู…ู†ู‡ุง ุงู„ู‡ูŠู…ูˆุฌู„ูˆุจูŠู† โžก๏ธ ูŠุชุญูˆู„ ุฅู„ู‰ ุจูŠู„ูŠุฑูˆุจูŠู† ุบูŠุฑ ู…ู‚ุชุฑู† (Unconjugated) ุงู„ูƒุจุฏ ุจูŠุญุงูˆู„ ูŠุชุนุงู…ู„ ู…ุนุงู‡ุŒ ู„ูƒู† ุงู„ูƒู…ูŠุฉ ุจุชูƒูˆู† ุฃูƒุจุฑ ู…ู† ุทุงู‚ุชู‡ุŒ ูู€ ุจูŠุฑุชูุน ููŠ ุงู„ุฏู…. ๐Ÿ”น ุฃู…ุซู„ุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุญุงู„ุงุช ุฏูŠ: โœด๏ธ ุฃู†ูŠู…ูŠุง ุชูƒุณูŠุฑูŠุฉ (Hemolytic anemia) โœด๏ธ ุถุนู ุชุตู†ูŠุน ูƒุฑุงุช ุงู„ุฏู… (Ineffective erythropoiesis) ๐Ÿ”น ุชุญุงู„ูŠู„ ุงู„ุฏู… ูˆุงู„ุจูˆู„: Unconjugated bilirubin (ุงู„ุฏู…): ุนุงู„ูŠ Urine bilirubin: ู…ุด ู…ูˆุฌูˆุฏ Urine urobilinogen: ุนุงู„ูŠ Jaundice level: ุฎููŠูุฉ ุบุงู„ุจู‹ุง (ุฃู‚ู„ ู…ู† 5 mg/dL) 2๏ธโƒฃ ู„ูˆ ุงู„ุงุฑุชูุงุน ููŠ ุงู„ุงุชู†ูŠู† Unconjugated ูˆ Conjugated Bilirubin ูˆู…ุนุงู‡ ุงุฑุชูุงุน ูˆุงุถุญ ุฌุฏู‹ุง ููŠ ุฅู†ุฒูŠู…ุงุช ุงู„ูƒุจุฏ GPT ูˆ GOT (ุฃุถุนุงู ุงู„ุทุจูŠุนูŠ)

HbA1c Test (Glycated Hemoglobin Test) 1. Objective: The objective of the HbA1c test was to measure the average blood glucose level over the past 2โ€“3 months by determining the percentage of glycated hemoglobin in the blood. 2. Principle: The test was based on the binding of glucose to hemoglobin in red blood cells. The higher the blood glucose level, the more glucose attached to hemoglobin. HbA1c was measured using methods such as immunoassay, ion-exchange chromatography, or enzymatic analysis. 3. Materials: โ€ข Patientโ€™s whole blood sample (EDTA tube) โ€ข HbA1c test kit (based on method used) โ€ข Pipettes and tips โ€ข Test tubes or cartridges โ€ข Analyzer (HPLC, immunoassay, or point-of-care device) 4. Procedure (Analytical): 1. Whole blood was collected and mixed gently to avoid clotting. 2. Reagents were prepared according to the test kit instructions. 3. A measured amount of blood was added to the reagent or cartridge. 4. The sample was analyzed in the HbA1c analyzer or spectrophotometer. 5. The analyzer calculated the percentage of HbA1c in total hemoglobin. 5. Result: โ€ข Normal Range: Below 5.7% โ€ข Prediabetes: 5.7% โ€“ 6.4% โ€ข Diabetes: 6.5% or higher Higher values indicated poor blood glucose control. 6. Uses: โ€ข To diagnose diabetes and prediabetes โ€ข To monitor long-term blood sugar control in diabetic patients โ€ข To adjust or evaluate the effectiveness of diabetes treatment 7. Consultation: Patients with high HbA1c levels were advised to consult a physician or endocrinologist for proper diabetes management. Lifestyle changes, medication adjustment, and regular monitoring were recommended to maintain HbA1c within the target range.

ุฌุงูŠู„ูƒ ู…ุฑูŠุถ ุชู…ุฏ ุฅูŠุฏู‡ ุนู„ุดุงู† ุชุณุญุจุŒ ุชู„ุงู‚ูŠ ุงู„ุฅูŠุฏ ู†ุงุดูุฉ ูˆู…ุชุฎุดุจุฉ ูƒุฏู‡ ูƒุฃู†ู‡ุง ุญุฌุฑุŒ ุงู„ูˆุฑูŠุฏ ู…ุด ุจุงูŠู† ูˆุงู„ุฏู… ู…ุด ุนุงูŠุฒ ูŠุทู„ุน ุฎุงู„ุต. ุชุญุณ ุฅู† ุงู„ุฅุจุฑ
ุฌุงูŠู„ูƒ ู…ุฑูŠุถ ุชู…ุฏ ุฅูŠุฏู‡ ุนู„ุดุงู† ุชุณุญุจุŒ ุชู„ุงู‚ูŠ ุงู„ุฅูŠุฏ ู†ุงุดูุฉ ูˆู…ุชุฎุดุจุฉ ูƒุฏู‡ ูƒุฃู†ู‡ุง ุญุฌุฑุŒ ุงู„ูˆุฑูŠุฏ ู…ุด ุจุงูŠู† ูˆุงู„ุฏู… ู…ุด ุนุงูŠุฒ ูŠุทู„ุน ุฎุงู„ุต. ุชุญุณ ุฅู† ุงู„ุฅุจุฑุฉ ุจุชุฎุจุท ููŠ ุญูŠุทู‡ ู…ุด ุฌู„ุฏ! ุงู„ู…ูˆุถูˆุน ุฏู‡ ุจูŠุญุตู„ ูƒุชูŠุฑุŒ ูˆุจูŠุจู‚ู‰ ู„ู‡ ูƒุฐุง ุณุจุจ: ุฃุดู‡ุฑู‡ู… ุฅู† ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุถ ุนู†ุฏู‡ ุจุฑูˆุฏุฉ ุฃุทุฑุงู ุฃูˆ ุถุนู ููŠ ุงู„ุฏูˆุฑุฉ ุงู„ุฏู…ูˆูŠุฉุŒ ุฎุตูˆุตู‹ุง ู„ูˆ ุนู†ุฏู‡ ุณูƒุฑ ุฃูˆ ุถุบุท ู…ู†ุฎูุถ. ูˆููŠ ู†ุงุณ ุจูŠุจู‚ู‰ ุนู†ุฏู‡ู… ุชู„ูŠู ุชุญุช ุงู„ุฌู„ุฏ ู†ุชูŠุฌุฉ ุญู‚ู† ูƒุชูŠุฑ ููŠ ู†ูุณ ุงู„ู…ูƒุงู†ุŒ ูุจุชุญุณ ุงู„ุฅูŠุฏ ู†ุงุดูุฉ ูˆู…ุชูŠุจุณุฉ. ููŠ ุงู„ุทุจ ุจูŠุชู‚ุงู„ ุนู„ูŠู‡ุง "Skin fibrosis" ุฃูˆ ุฃุญูŠุงู†ู‹ุง "poor peripheral circulation". ุงู„ุญู„ ุจุณูŠุท: ู‚ุจู„ ุงู„ุณุญุจ ุณุฎู‘ู† ุงู„ุฅูŠุฏ ุดูˆูŠุฉุŒ ูŠุง ุจูƒู…ุฏุงุช ุฏุงููŠุฉ ูŠุง ุจูุฑูƒ ุฎููŠูุŒ ูˆุงุฏูŠ ุงู„ูˆุฑูŠุฏ ูˆู‚ุช ูŠุธู‡ุฑ. ูˆู…ุชุนุงู†ุฏุด ุงู„ุฅุจุฑุฉ ู…ุน ูˆุฑูŠุฏ ู…ุด ุฑุงุถูŠุŒ ู„ุฃู† ุณุงุนุงุช ุงู„ูˆุฑูŠุฏ ุจูŠุจู‚ู‰ ูุนู„ุงู‹ "ู…ุฎู†ูˆู‚" ูˆู…ุด ุฌุงู‡ุฒ ู„ู„ุณุญุจ. ุงู„ุดุงุทุฑ ู…ุด ุงู„ู„ูŠ ูŠุณุญุจ ุจุณุฑุนุฉุŒ ู‡ูˆ ุงู„ู„ูŠ ูŠุนุฑู ุฅู…ุชู‰ ูŠุณุญุจโ€ฆ ูˆุฅู…ุชู‰ ูŠุณุชู†ู‰.

Neurotransmitters are your bodyโ€™s chemical messengers. They carry messages from one nerve cell across a space to the next nerve, muscle or gland cell. These messages help you move your limbs, feel sensations, keep your heart beating, and take in and respond to all information your body receives from other internal parts of your body and your environment.

๐Ÿ‘€ ุชุญู„ูŠู„ ูƒูˆู…ุจุณ (Coombs Test)ุŸ ุงู„ุชุญู„ูŠู„ ุฏู‡ ู…ู† ุฃู‡ู… ุงู„ุชุญุงู„ูŠู„ ุงู„ู„ูŠ ุจุชูƒุดู ุฅุฐุง ูƒุงู† ุฌู‡ุงุฒ ุงู„ู…ู†ุงุนุฉ ุจูŠู‡ุงุฌู… ูƒุฑุงุช ุงู„ุฏู… ุงู„ุญู…ุฑุงุก ูˆู„ุง ู„ุฃ! ูŠุนู†ูŠ ุฅูŠู‡ ุงู„ุชุญู„ูŠู„ ุฏู‡ุŸ ุชุญู„ูŠู„ ุงู„ูƒูˆู…ุจุณ ุจูŠูƒุดู ุนู† ูˆุฌูˆุฏ ุฃุฌุณุงู… ู…ุถุงุฏุฉ (Antibodies) ู„ุงุตู‚ุฉ ุจุณุทุญ ูƒุฑุงุช ุงู„ุฏู… ุงู„ุญู…ุฑุงุก ุฃูˆ ุทุงูŠูุฉ ููŠ ุงู„ุณูŠุฑู… ูˆุจุชู‡ุงุฌู…ู‡ุง. ูŠุนู†ูŠ ุจุงู„ุนุฑุจูŠ: ู„ูˆ ุฌุณู…ูƒ ุจุฏุฃ ูŠุนุชุจุฑ ูƒุฑุงุช ุฏู…ูƒ โ€œุนุฏูˆโ€ ูˆูŠู…ุดูŠ ูŠูƒุณู‘ุฑู‡ุง โ†’ ุงู„ุชุญู„ูŠู„ ุฏู‡ ุงู„ู„ูŠ ู‡ูŠูุถุญู‡ ุฃู†ูˆุงุนู‡: Direct Coombs Test (ุงู„ุงุฎุชุจุงุฑ ุงู„ู…ุจุงุดุฑ): ุจู†ุณุชุฎุฏู…ู‡ ุนุดุงู† ู†ุนุฑู ู‡ู„ ุงู„ุฃุฌุณุงู… ุงู„ู…ุถุงุฏุฉ ูุนู„ุงู‹ ู„ุงุตู‚ุฉ ููŠ ูƒุฑุงุช ุงู„ุฏู… ุฏุงุฎู„ ุงู„ุฌุณู… ูˆู„ุง ู„ุฃ. ุจูŠุชุนู…ู„ ููŠ ุญุงู„ุงุช: ูู‚ุฑ ุฏู… ุงู†ุญู„ุงู„ูŠ ู…ู†ุงุนูŠ (AIHA) ู†ู‚ู„ ุฏู… ุบูŠุฑ ู…ุชูˆุงูู‚ ู…ุฑุถ ุงู†ุญู„ุงู„ ุงู„ุฏู… ููŠ ุญุฏูŠุซูŠ ุงู„ูˆู„ุงุฏุฉ (HDN) Indirect Coombs Test (ุงู„ุงุฎุชุจุงุฑ ุบูŠุฑ ุงู„ู…ุจุงุดุฑ): ุจูŠุชุนุงู…ู„ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุณูŠุฑู… ู†ูุณู‡ ุนู„ุดุงู† ู†ุนุฑู ุฅุฐุง ููŠู‡ ุฃุฌุณุงู… ู…ุถุงุฏุฉ ู…ู…ูƒู† ุชู‡ุงุฌู… ูƒุฑุงุช ุฏู… ุดุฎุต ุชุงู†ูŠ. ุจูŠุชุนู…ู„ ููŠ: ู‚ุจู„ ู†ู‚ู„ ุงู„ุฏู… (Crossmatch) ุฃุซู†ุงุก ู…ุชุงุจุนุฉ ุงู„ุญูˆุงู…ู„ (ุฎุตูˆุตู‹ุง ู„ูˆ ุงู„ุฃู… Rh ุณุงู„ุจ ูˆุงู„ุฌู†ูŠู† ู…ูˆุฌุจ) ุงู„ู†ุชูŠุฌุฉ ู„ูˆ ุทู„ุนุช ุฅูŠุฌุงุจูŠุฉ: ูŠุนู†ูŠ ููŠู‡ ุชูุงุนู„ ู…ู†ุงุนูŠ ุถุฏ ูƒุฑุงุช ุงู„ุฏู… โ†’ ู„ุงุฒู… ู†ุนุฑู ุงู„ุณุจุจ ูˆู†ุนุงู„ุฌู‡ ููˆุฑู‹ุง.

๐Ÿšจ ุงู„ุฐุฆุจุฉ ุงู„ุญู…ุฑุงุก (SLE): ู„ุบุฒ ู…ู†ุงุนูŠ ู„ุงุฒู… ู†ูƒุชุดูู‡ ูˆู†ุชุงุจุนู‡ ุจุฏู‚ุฉ! ุงู„ุฃู…ุฑุงุถ ุงู„ู…ู†ุงุนูŠุฉ ุงู„ุฐุงุชูŠุฉ ุชู…ุซู„ ุชุญุฏูŠ ูƒุจูŠุฑ ููŠ ุงู„ุชุดุฎูŠุต ูˆุงู„ู…ุชุงุจุนุฉ. ุจุจุณุงุทุฉุŒ ุจูŠุญุตู„ "ุฎู„ู„" ููŠ ู†ุธุงู… ุงู„ุญู…ุงูŠุฉ ุงู„ุฏุงุฎู„ูŠุŒ ูˆุจูŠุจุฏุฃ ุงู„ุฌู‡ุงุฒ ุงู„ู…ู†ุงุนูŠ ูŠู‡ุงุฌู… ุฃู†ุณุฌุฉ ุงู„ุฌุณู… ุงู„ุณู„ูŠู…ุฉ. ู…ู† ุฃุจุฑุฒ ุงู„ุฃู…ุซู„ุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฎู„ู„ ุฏู‡ ู‡ูˆ ู…ุฑุถ ุงู„ุฐุฆุจุฉ ุงู„ุญู…ุฑุงุก (Systemic Lupus Erythematosus - SLE). ุฏู‡ ู…ุฑุถ ุจูŠุนู…ู„ ุงู„ุชู‡ุงุจ ู…ุฒู…ู† ู…ู…ูƒู† ูŠุธู‡ุฑ ุนู„ู‰ ุดูƒู„ ุทูุญ ุฌู„ุฏูŠ ู…ู…ูŠุฒ ูˆุขู„ุงู… ูˆุชูˆุฑู… ููŠ ุงู„ู…ูุงุตู„ุŒ ูˆู…ู…ูƒู† ูŠุคุซุฑ ูƒู…ุงู† ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุนุถุงุก ุงู„ุญูŠูˆูŠุฉ. ู„ู„ุฒู…ู„ุงุก ุงู„ูู†ูŠูŠู† ูˆุงู„ุฃุฎุตุงุฆูŠูŠู†: ุงู„ุชุดุฎูŠุต ูˆุงู„ู…ุชุงุจุนุฉ.. ุดุบู„ู†ุง ุงู„ุฏู‚ูŠู‚! ุงูƒุชุดุงู ุงู„ุฐุฆุจุฉ ูˆู…ุชุงุจุนุชู‡ุง ุจูŠุนุชู…ุฏ ุจุดูƒู„ ูƒุจูŠุฑ ุนู„ู‰ ุฏู‚ุฉ ุดุบู„ู†ุง ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุนู…ู„. ุฏูŠ ุฃู‡ู… ุงู„ุชุญุงู„ูŠู„ ูˆุฏูˆุฑู‡ุง: * ANA (Antinuclear Antibody): * ู‡ูˆ Screening Test ุถุฑูˆุฑูŠ. ุงู„ู†ุชูŠุฌุฉ ุงู„ู€ Positive ุจุชูˆุฌู‡ู†ุงุŒ ูˆุงู„ู€ Titre (ุงู„ุนูŠุงุฑ) ูˆุงู„ู†ู…ุท (Pattern) ู…ู‡ู…ูŠู† ุฌุฏุงู‹ ู„ุชู‚ุฏูŠุฑ ู‚ูŠู…ุฉ ุงู„ู†ุชูŠุฌุฉ (ู…ุซู„ุงู‹ุŒ ู†ู…ุท Homogenous ุฃูˆ Speckled). * ู…ู„ุงุญุธุฉ: ุจู†ุณุชุฎุฏู…ู‡ ุนุงุฏุฉู‹ ุจุชู‚ู†ูŠุฉ IIF (Indirect Immunofluorescence) ู„ุถู…ุงู† ุฃุนู„ู‰ ุฏู‚ุฉ ูˆุญุณุงุณูŠุฉ. * Anti-dsDNA: * ุฏู‡ Specific Marker ู„ู„ุฐุฆุจุฉ. ุงุฑุชูุงุนู‡ ุนุงุฏุฉู‹ ุจูŠูƒูˆู† ู…ุฑุชุจุท ุจู€ ู†ุดุงุท ุงู„ุฐุฆุจุฉ ูˆุชุฃุซูŠุฑู‡ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ูƒู„ู‰ (Lupus Nephritis). * ุงู„ู…ุณุชูˆู‰ ุงู„ู‚ุงุทุน (Cut-off Value) ุจูŠุฎุชู„ู ุญุณุจ ุทุฑูŠู‚ุฉ ุงู„ู‚ูŠุงุณ (ELISAุŒ CLIA)ุŒ ูˆู„ุงุฒู… ู†ู„ุชุฒู… ุจุงู„ู€ Kit Insert. * Anti-Smith antibodies: * Highly Specific ู„ู„ุฐุฆุจุฉ (Specificity ุนุงู„ูŠุฉ ุฌุฏุงู‹)ุŒ ุจุณ ู…ุด ุจูŠุทู„ุน ุฅูŠุฌุงุจูŠ ููŠ ูƒู„ ุงู„ุญุงู„ุงุช (Sensitivity ุฃู‚ู„). ุธู‡ูˆุฑู‡ ุจูŠุณุงุนุฏ ููŠ ุชุฃูƒูŠุฏ ุงู„ุชุดุฎูŠุต. * Complement levels (C3, C4): * ุงู†ุฎูุงุถู‡ู… (Hypocomplementemia) ุจูŠุดูŠุฑ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงุณุชู‡ู„ุงูƒ ุงู„ูƒูˆู…ุจู„ูŠู…ู†ุช ุจุณุจุจ ุงู„ู†ุดุงุท ุงู„ู…ู†ุงุนูŠุŒ ูˆุฏู‡ ู…ุคุดุฑ ู‚ูˆูŠ ุนู„ู‰ ู†ุดุงุท ุงู„ุฐุฆุจุฉ. ุงู„ู…ุชุงุจุนุฉ ุงู„ุฑูˆุชูŠู†ูŠุฉ ู„ูŠู‡ู… ุถุฑูˆุฑูŠุฉ. * ESR & CRP: * ุจู†ุณุชุฎุฏู…ู‡ู… ุนุดุงู† ู†ุชุงุจุน ู…ุณุชูˆู‰ ุงู„ุงู„ุชู‡ุงุจ ุงู„ุนุงู… ููŠ ุงู„ุฌุณู…. ุงุฑุชูุงุน ุงู„ู€ ESR ุจูŠูƒูˆู† ู…ุชูˆู‚ุน ููŠ ุงู„ุฐุฆุจุฉุŒ ุจุณ ุงู„ู€ CRP ู…ู…ูƒู† ูŠูƒูˆู† ุทุจูŠุนูŠ ุฃูˆ ู…ุฑุชูุน ุจุดูƒู„ ุจุณูŠุท ุฅู„ุง ู„ูˆ ูƒุงู† ููŠู‡ ุนุฏูˆู‰ ู…ุตุงุญุจุฉุŒ ูˆุฏู‡ ุจูŠุฏูŠู†ุง ู†ู‚ุทุฉ ุชูุฑูŠู‚ ู…ู‡ู…ุฉ.

Icteric serum is a serum that appears abnormally dark yellow due to elevated bilirubin levels in the blood, giving it a jaundice-like color. Causes of Icteric Serum (Associated Conditions) 1. *Hepatic (Hepatocellular) Causes*: - *Hepatitis*: Viral (A, B, C) or due to drugs/toxins. - *Cirrhosis*. - *Obstructive Cholestasis*: Gallstones, biliary obstruction, drug-induced cholestasis. 2. *Hemolytic Disorders (Excessive Red Blood Cell Breakdown)*: - *Hemolytic Anemia*: Like G6PD deficiency, spherocytosis. - *Transfusion reaction*. - *Inherited/Metabolic Disorders*: Gilbert's syndrome (mild unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia), Crigler-Najjar syndrome. Characteristics - *Appearance*: Dark yellow serum. - *Association*: Usually associated with jaundice (yellowing of skin and eyes). - *Bilirubin Levels*: Above ~2-3 mg/dL typically produce visible yellow discoloration. Notes - Bilirubin is a product of hemoglobin breakdown. - Requires clinical and laboratory evaluation to determine the underlying cause.

Lipemic serum is a serum that appears milky or turbid due to elevated levels of triglycerides in the blood, giving it a "milky" appearance. Causes / Associated Conditions 1. *Hypertriglyceridemia*: Can be primary (like familial hypertriglyceridemia) or secondary (like due to diabetes, high-fat diet). 2. *Diabetes mellitus*: Especially in poorly controlled diabetes leading to elevated triglycerides. 3. *Acute pancreatitis*: Sometimes lipemic serum is seen preceding pancreatitis. 4. *Postprandial lipemia*: Temporary milky serum after consuming a high-fat meal. Characteristics - *Appearance*: Milky or turbid. - Can interfere with some laboratory tests (e.g., AST, ALT, electrolytes) โ†’ laboratory caution required. Notes - Elevated triglycerides are the main cause. - Proper handling and fasting samples may be needed for accurate lab results.

The 2025 medicine laureates identified the immune systemโ€™s security guards, regulatory T cells, which prevent immune cells from attacking our own body. The fundamental knowledge that researchers have gained through the discovery of regulatory T cells and their importance for peripheral immune tolerance, has spurred the development of potential new medical treatments. Mapping of tumours shows that they can attract large numbers of regulatory T cells that protect them from the immune system. Researchers are therefore trying to find ways to dismantle this wall of regulatory T cells, so the immune system can access the tumours. In autoimmune diseases, researchers are instead trying to promote the formation of more regulatory T cells. In pilot studies, they are giving patients interleukin-2, a substance that makes regulatory T cells thrive. Researchers are also investigating whether interleukin-2 can be used to prevent organs being rejected after transplantation. Another strategy researchers are testing to slow an overactive immune system is to isolate regulatory T cells from a patient and multiply them in a laboratory. These are then returned to the patient, who will thus have more regulatory T cells in their body. In some cases, researchers also modify the T cells, putting antibodies on their surface that function like an address label. This allows researchers to send these cellular security guards to a transplanted liver or kidney, for example, and protect the organ from being attacked by the immune system. There are many more examples of how researchers are testing how regulatory T cells can be used to combat diseases. Through their revolutionary discoveries, Mary Brunkow, Fred Ramsdell and Shimon Sakaguchi have provided fundamental knowledge of how the immune system is regulated and kept in check. They have thus conferred the greatest benefit to humankind. The 2025 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine has been awarded to Mary E. Brunkow, Fred Ramsdell and Shimon Sakaguchi โ€œfor their discoveries concerning peripheral immune tolerance.โ€

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