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14. Weak Analogy
ááş ááá ááľđ á°áᢠáŤááá á¨ááľáľáá˝ á áľá°áłá°áĽ ááá˘
Eg. " My instructor's car is blue in colour, its speed is 180km/h and it is made in Germany. My sister's new car is also blue and has speed of 180k./h. Therefore, my sister's car is also made in Germany."
á ááŁá áľá Fallacies Of Presumption áĽááŤááá˘
á á°áἠá ááĽáĄ á¨á°ááŤáŠ ááłááá˝á á°ááááąđ¤
@Ucan_Scorebot
ŠA+ Tutorial Class
đFallacies of Weak Induction
This types of fallacies usually appears in inductive arguments.
áĽááá
á áłáłá˝ á¨áá á¨áááłá á áľá°áłá°áĽ á ááááŽáá˝ áá¸áá˘
Chapter 2 áá áŁáŤáżá¸á inductive arguments áá defect á˛áá á Fallacies of weak induction are committed áĽááááá˘
The premises of the argument may be relevant but not sufficient to establish a conclusion.
9. Appeal to Unqualified Authority
[Argumentum Ad Verecandium]
Sometimes we are in need of the suggestion, comment, advice and information of others that would enable us to reach a conclusion of our own.
However, The person that we relied on to provide the information that we seek might be unreliable.
áá áá¨á áááľá áľ áĽááľ á¨áááá á°á áĽáá ááá ááľáá ááľá¨á ááá˘
áááłáᣠ" Dr. Ismail, who is the famous biochemist in this country, told me last night that all economic policies of this country are wrong. It implies thay, this country's Economic policy is wrong."
á áŤáš Dr. Ismail á á
ááá áľáá
áľááŁá á áá áááľ áľá áá ááá á¨á°á á áá°áĽ áľááá áá áááľ á áá°ááá˘
á¨áá áá á°áŤáá áá áľá á˘áŽááá ááĽáŤááŤáá á¨á°á á Economist á˘áá áᎠAppeal to Authority ááá Appeal to expert opinion áá á¨ááŁááá˘
áľááá
áľáááŤááŁá˝á ááá á á°áἠáľáááłáááľ ááá ááĽáŤáŞáŤ á¨ááľá áľ á°áá áĄđ So that you do not commit this fallacyđ
10. Appeal to Ignorance
[Argumentum ad ignorantiam]
This Fallacy is committed when one's conclusion is supported by one's own ignorance, lack of evidence or lack of tangible information or knowledge.
áľá áá¨áá áľáááá áĽáááľ áłááá¨á áĽáá°ááááá ááá áá°áá°á፠ááľá áľá˘ áá Fallacy á áááľ ááááľ ááá á áá˝áá:-
đArguing that something is True Because no one has proved to be false.
(áá°áľ áĽáá°áá áľááá°á¨ááá áĽáááľ áá áááľ)
đArguing that something is false Because no one Hassan proved it to be True. (áĽáááľ áĽáá°áá áľááá°á¨ááá áá˝áľ áá áááľ)
Eg1. "Life After death is real, since no one has proved that there is no such thing as life after death."
Eg2. "Life after death is a myth, because no one yet proved that it is real."
11. Hasty Generalization Fallacy
This fallacy is just the opposite of Accident fallacy.
It is drawing a conclusion or reaching a certain point of generalization from too small evidences.
á¨á°áá°á ááá á¨áĽááľ áá¨ááá˝ áĽáť á°ááľá°á áá°áá°á፠áľáá°áŤ á¨ááá á á¨á áľá°áłá°áĽ áľá
á°áľ ááá˘
Eg. "Addis Zemen Gazeta carried an interview to know the reading skill among young people. It has found out that, among ten young people it interviewed, none of them read a book for the last two years. The conclusion is obvious: all young people in the country do not have the culture of reading books."
12) False Cause Fallacy
Is Committed when someone infering causal explanations from premises that do not provide sufficient evidence to it.
á¨áľá
á°áľ áááľá¤á áá¨á áľáá°áá á¨ááá á Fallacy ááᢠáśáľáľ á áááľ á¨False cause fallacy á áááľ á á
đPost hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy
áľáá ááá ἠá¨á áłášá đ
This fallacy is committed when we arrive at a certain conclusion by claiming that one thing is the cause of another thing Because it preceds by the time.
áááłáᣠ"áá°á áá ááá˝á áá° áááľ áĽá¨ááłá˝á á¨áá° áĽáá áśáŽ đ§ááááľ áá áŤáŤáš á¨á፠áŤáá áá°á á¨3/10 áĽáłáᥠ፠áśáŽ áá áĽáᲠáŤá¨áá áľáľáđ" áá
post hoc...ááá˘
áá ááłá " Ever since we quit going to church, our business has been going to worse. If we start attending church our business would become good"
đNon causa pro causa fallacy
đNot the cause for the cause áááľ ááá˘
áááľá¤ ááá á¨ááááŁá áááľá¤ áá á˛áá°áľá˘
Eg1. "áĽáˇ áľá ááľ ááááŤáąá á ááá á¨áááłá"đ
Eg2. "What makes Africans poor is because they are black people."
đOverSimplified cause fallacy
á ááľ ááá ááá¨á°áą áĽá ááááŤáśá˝ áĽáŤááľ á ááąá áĽáť á°á áŤá ááľá¨áá˘
Eg. "Don't worry; she will be all right from her abdominal sicknes. I gave her good advices"
áľááá¨áŤáľ áĽáťá á ááťááľáᣠááá áá á¨á
áá áĽááľáłááá ááá áĽááą ááááŤáľ ááá áá˝ááá˘
13. Slippery Slope Fallacy
đis a species of negative reasoning from consequences, used where two parties are deliberating together and one warns the other not to take a contemplated action.
áá°á¨á°áąáľ áááłáá˝ áá ááá áá¨á¨áť áá áá°á¨á°á á¨áŁáľ á˝áá á¨ááááŞáŤáá ááááŤáľ á°á áŤá ááľá¨áá˘
áááłá:-
Student: I do have a question, teacher.
Teacher: I will not allow you to ask me because, If I allow you to ask me, others will start asking me and as a result I will not have enough time for my lecture.
áĽáááąá ááááá áĽá A+ tutorial classin á¨á°ááááአáá ááᎠá áŁá áĽá¨áłá°á áá á áĽá á áľáá
ááą á áá ááŠáľ ááśá˝ á ááŤáááľ mid exam á°ááľá áĽáŠ áá¤áľ áá á áŤááŁáá...
áĽá á°ááá á°áá áĽááá°á áľáŤ á ááŁá˝á áá á áľáá˝ ááá¨áľ áĽááá á¨áá¨áłá°á áĽááá°á á áľáľ ááľ á á°á áááľ áá..áááááá áááá ááá ááľááᏠá¨áἠáá ááĽáá áľ áĽááááá˘áĽá á final exam Augest 24_02 phagume áľááá á á°áťáá˝á áá á fallacyáá psycho chapter 6&7 áĽáľáááá á°áľ ááááá˘
á@A+ tutoria
ââśâââśâ˝ââ áá á¨JIMMA univeristy
e deserves for."
á ááŁá Fallacies of Weak Induction áĽááŤáá
á°áá ááđ¤
á áľá°áŤááľá áĽáŤáđ
@Ucan_Scorebot
ŠA+ Tutorial Class
Is Usually committed by discrediting (damaging the good reputation of a person) for the purpose of criticizing the arguments forwarded by the person.
á¨ááá°áĽá ááááľ á ááĽááľ á¨áá¨á áá ááłáĽ ááľá
áááľá¨á á˛áá¨á á¨áááá á¨á áľá°áłá°áĽ áľá
á°áľ ááá˘
There are three types of the fallacy of Ad hominem
đAd Hominem Abusive Fallacy
Is committed when we engage in abusive remarks about the person and use them as a ground for rejecting the person's claim.
á ááľá á¨áá¨á ááłáĽ áááá á˛ááá ááľá¨á á á
áጠá¨áááá ááá
á¨ááŤá á°á áľáĽáá á ááá°á á¨áááἠá¨áľá
á°áľ áľá˝áľ ááá˘
ááşá ááłá áĽáŠá áľđ
Eg. "Hailu's idea that there is life after death should be discounted; since he was regularly treated in Emmanuel Hospital-a hospital that treats individuals having personality disorders."
đAd Hominem Circumstantial Fallacy
This fallacy inferes that "A claim the person makes is false because somebody in that position could be expected to make such claims."
áá
á¨ááá°áĄ áá á¨áááá áááłáá˝á á ááĽááľ ááłáĄá ááľá
áááľá¨á ááá¨á ááá˘
Eg. "We heard the saying of Getachew that 'Freedom is that we yearn (á¨áááááá)for Centuries in Ethiopia. But it could not yet to be achieved.' But Getachew's idea should be rejected, because he is one of the leaders of opposition parties."
á áá Getachew 'á á˘áľáŽáľáŤ ááľáĽ ááááľ á¨áá' áŤáá á¨á°ááŤáŤáŞ/á¨á°ááŤá Party á áŁá áľááá áá áĽáá áĽáá°ááľá áľá
á°áľ ááá˘
đAd Hominem tu quoque
This fallacy is committed when we say that a person's clam is false because it's contrary with something else the person has said or done before.
Tu quoque áááľ "You also", "you did it, too" áááľ ááá˘
á¨áŤáľá áľá
á°áľ ááá¸áá á¨áááá áľá
á°áľ ááĽááľ ááá˘
áááłá áĽááľ: áá á áľáľá¨á
ááĽááľ áĽáŠ á áá°ááá˘
áá
: áĽáá´ áĽáá áĽáá´áľ á áľáľá¨á
á˛áááá˝? áŁááá á¨á áŁá´ áľá áĽá áľáľá°áá á á áá á áĽá¨áą á áá¨áá˝áá
5. Accident
is committed when a general rule is applied to a specific case it was not intended to cover.
áááłá: "ááááá á°á á¨áááŤáľ ááĽáľ á ááᣠáľááá
ááŽáá°á á¨á á° áŁááá áľá á˘áľáŽáľáŤ ááááľáľ áľááá¨á ááá ááłá°á á ááá á¨á áľáá˘"
6. Straw Man Fallacy
This Fallacy is committed when some one opposes an opponen'ts ot other's opinion and presents in its place a distorted, oversimplified, misrepresented and exaggerated version for the purpose of making it easier to attack the opponenent's position.
á¨á°áááŞáá ááá á¨áááá ááłáĽ á áááá ááá á ááŁáŁá ááľá˝áľ áĽáá˛áá˝ á ááľá¨á áááá ááá˘
The basic structure of the argument consists of Person A making a claim, Person B creating a distorted version of the claim (the âstraw manâ), and then Person B attacking this distorted version in order to refute Person Aâs original assertion.
ááşá ááłá áľáľááá¨áą á á°áἠááá
ááááá˝ááđ
example, imagine a husband and a wife are trying to decide whether they should adopt a dog or a cat.
Wife: I'd rather have a dog than a cat.
Husband: Why do you hate cats?
The wife never said that she hated cats, only that she preferred dogs. The husband either assumed or pretended that her argument was against cats instead of for dogs. Now the wife must argue that she doesn't hate cats â which completely changes the course of the discussion[áá° red herring fallacy áááŤáá].Â
7. Missing the point
[Ignoratio elenchi]
This fallacy is caused when the argument has a problem of the logical imlplication of the premise and draws the conclusion that which is not a right conclusion.
áá á áá¨á ááłáĄ áá á¨áľ áľááááááá á°áᢠá¨áá áá°áá°á፠ááłáĽ áá ááľá¨áľ á áááťá ááá ááĽá ááłáľ áááľ ááá˘
Eg. "Addis Ababa University has lots of problems. Students services and facilities are inadequate. Many of the instructors are inexperienced. It follows that; the University should be entirely closed."
á áŤáš á á¨á°á¨á°á áľá Conclusion..á¨áá¨áááš á°ááľáś "áĽá ááľááľ áľááá áľ áááá˘" áááą Fallacy ááá˘
8. The Red Herring Fallacy
[Off the track fallacy]
This fallacy occurs when we instead of trying to prove or disprove others views some one attempts to change the subject.
It can also be called "Diversion".
á á áአááľáá¨áľ áááľ ááᢠá°áááŞá áŁááłá ááłáĽ áá á¨áľ á ááľ áá°áá°á፠ááłáĽ áá áĽááłáá°á¨áľ á˛ááá á¨á°ááłá ááłá áá á¨ááááá ááłáĽ á áááłáľ á¨ááááŞáŤáá ááłáĽ áááá áááľ ááá˘
Eg. "Teferi: Do you know, that Almaz has got "A"𤊠in logic.
Asfaw: You knows that she always wears a miniskirts and she attracts teachers with her half-naked body. That is itđ¤ˇââ and not her own effort. So, scoring "A" is not a kind of grade that sh
Professor, hear me once please. I should deserve at least a B in this course. If I do not, I will be in Prohibition and total lose of moral courage to attend other courses."
3. Appeal to People
[Argumentum ad Populum]
Is committed whenever anyone urging the acceptance of a claim by arousing strong feelings that may leaf audiences to accept the claim without a logical justigication of it.
áá
á°áá á¨á
ááĽá áľááľ á áááłáłáľ á¨ááááľá áááłáŤáľ á˛áá¨á á¨áááá á¨áľá
á°áľ á áľá°áłá°áĽ ááá˘
Two approaches are involved in appeal to people fallacy:
đdirect and
đindirect.
đThe direct approach occurs when an arguer, addressing a large group of people, excites the emotions and enthusiasm of the crowd to win acceptance for his or her conclusion.
áááłá áĽá Hitler á¨á
ááĄá áľááľ á áááłáłáľá á áááľááľ áá á á ááᥠá¨áá¨áááľá ááá á¨á¨á¨ á áá á¨á፠á°á áá áĽáááľ á¨á°ááááá˘
đIn the indirect approach, the arguer aims his or her appeal not at the crowd as a whole but at one or more individuals separately.
áá
á°áá áááá°áŚá˝ á¨áááἠááŁá ፠ááᢠThere are Three forms of indirect approach
đAppeal to Bandwagon
Emphasizes that the majority's choice is a correct one and urges audiences to join them
áá
áááľ "á áĽááá á°á á°ááĽááłáá á áá°á á°áá áá" áááľ ááá˘
Eg. " Many Freshman Students study in library so, Studying in library is the best for freshman students"
đAppeal to Vanity
á á˝ááłá¸á ááá á¨áá á°áá˝ áľááá ááá áľ á áá°á áĽáľá ááá áľ á¨ááááš ááĽá ááá¨ááá˘
Eg. "Who is going to wear this new fashion dress, a dress worn by the famous Aster Awoke in her New Year's Sheraten Hotel's Show?"
đAppeal to Snobbery
á¨á°á¨á አá°áá˝á ááĽááľ ááá áááá˝ #á¨á áá (Superior) á¨ááá ááááľ
Eg. "The newly produced Malt Guiness is not for everyone to drink. But you are different from other people, aren't you? Therefore, the newly malt guiness is for you.
đIn Birhanu direct and indirect approach to appeal to the people fallacy the arguer targeted on exploiting strong emotions of the people.
4. Argument against The Person
[Argumentum Ad Hominem]
đCHAPTER 5
đINFORMAL FALLACIES
đWhat is Fallacy?
A fallacy, in most general terms, is an error or defect or mistake commited in arguments.
áĽááá˝ "Fallacy" á¨áááá áá "á
áá
" á ááá áá°á¨áááłáᣠááá áá ááá á á°áἠááá
á¨ááŤá°ááá áľááá "á á ááááŽ/á ááááŤáłáááľ á áľá°áłá°áĽ á¨áá¨á°áľ áľá
á°áľáŁ áľá
á°áľ á¨ááááľá ááá áá á°áá˝á á¨ááŤáľáą.."
đDepending on the kind of the problems or defects they contain, (i.e., the problems or defects that make them fallacious), arguments may commit either a formal or an informal fallacy. As a result, they are often grouped in two:
Formal fallacies and
Informal fallacies
đFormal Fallacy is When an argument contains a #structural defect or problem and violates the standard form of a good argument.
đáá
áááľ á ááłáŁá¸á á¨á°áá¨áľ áľáááľ ááłáá á¨áá˝á á áłáłá˝ á¨á áááᎠáľá
á°áśá˝ áááľ ááá˘
á¨á á¨áá° áááŽášá á¨áááśáš á áááἠáĽáť á áá°á ááá¨áľ á¨ááá˝áá¸á áá¸áá˘
áĽáľáŞ ááŁáŠá ááłá á°ááá¨áąđ
All Freshmans are Clevers.
Therefore, All Clevers are Freshmans.
á áŤáš á áá á áá Structural defect á áá áľá˘ ááá ááŹá˝áá áá á áá áááľ ááá áá á ááŹá˝áá áá áááľ á áá°ááá˘
áľááá
Formal Fallacyá áĽáá˛á á ááłá˝á ááá¨áľ áľá˝ááá˝á! á°áá áŤáááááłá˝á "formal fallacy are only found in Deductive Argument." áĽá Categorical, hypothetical, disjunctive syllogism formal fallacyá Commit ááŤá¨á áá˝ááá˘
áĽáľáŞ áá ááłá áá¨áááá˝áđ
All Elephants are animals.
All mammals are animals.
Therefore, all elephants are mammals.
áĽáá˛á
á áááąá á áá á ááá informal fallacy áááá¸áá á¨ArgumentáĄá Structure áĽáť á áááá¨áľ ááá¨áľ áľá˝ááá˝áá˘
đINFORMAL FALLACIES
đIs a fallacy, which is committed due to a defect in the very content of an argument, other than in its structure of form.
Informal fallacies cannot be identified through mere inspection of the form or structure of the argument.
"Informal Fallacy"á á á ááá áľáá°á¨ááá "á áááśášá á á á¨áá° áááŽáš ááá
á áłááá #áááłá¸áá á ááááá ááłáá á¨áá˝á á áłáłá˝ á¨á áááᎠááľááśá˝ áááľ ááá˘
Informal fallacyáá˝ á áĽááľ áľáááá Argument áááľááᣠá°áá˝á á¨ááłáá ááá á áá¸á ááá áá áľá
á°áľ áá¸áá˘
áĽáľáŞ á ááľ á¨informal fallacy ááłá áĽáááá¨áľ [á¨ááá á¨á°áá°á°]đ
All factories are plants.
All plants are things that contain chlorophyll. Therefore, all factories are things that contain chlorophyll.
á˛áłá áľáááá argument áááľáá á ? ááá áá á áá°áá! " Plant" á¨ááá Word á¨ááááŞáŤáá á¨ááá°áá Sentence ááľáĽ á¨á°á ááá áľ Context á ááľ á á°áá! á¨áááááŤá áá Plant áááľ "á°áá°á¨á°áŁ á°á°á¨á( áá¤áľáŁ áááĽáŞáŤ..)"
á¨ááá°áá áá Plant áááľ á˝áá áááľ ááá˘
áľááá
FormᥠáĽáá˛á
ááá áá˝ááđ
All A are B.
All B are C.
------------------
Therefore, All A are C.
á áŤáš á á á°áἠáŤááľá°ááá˝ááľ informal fallacyá áááá¨áľ áľáá˝ á¨áŁáľ ááá˘
Now a day, more than 100 fallacies have been invented. Now let's see some of them.
ááááŞáŤ ááá
áĽáá˛áááá˝á á¨áłá˝ á¨á°ááááá Photo á°ááá¨áą
1âŁFallacies of Relevance
Arguments in which the premise is logically irrelevant to establish the conclusion. (Except missing the point)
In this fallacy, although the premise is logically irrelevant, #Psychologically it could be relevant to the conclusion.
áááľá the connection between premises and conclusion is emotional. Such arguments are often called non sequiturs ááá Argumentative leaps á°áĽá áá áŤáá˘
áá¨á ááłáĄ á¨áá°áá°ááŤá áá á ááŁáĽááľ áŤááá Fallacy of Relevance ááŁááá˘
á ááľá áĽááłáŤá˝ááľ áĽáá
áľá áľáááľ(8) fallacies of relevance áĽááŤááá˘
1. Appeal to Force
[Argumentum Ad Baculum]
đOccurs when an arguer poses a conclusion to another person and tells that person either implicitly or explicitly that some harm will come to him if he does not accept the conclusion.
áá "ááľá¨á á áá
á¨áĽ á¨ááłáá ááá
á ááť á°ááŁáááľ áááááľ á¨áá°á¨á á¨áľá
á°áľ á áľá°áłá°áĽ ááá˘"
áĽáľáŞ áĽáşá ááłá áĽáŞá áľ: á áŁáľ ááá:-
"My boy, you must study hard, if not you will be either a criminal or a beggar."
đThis fallacy always involves a threat by the arguer to the physical or psychological well- being of the listener.
NB: ááá áá Argumentᥠá ááľáĄ ááťá ááľááŤáŤáľ áľááŤá áĽáť Appeal to Force áá áááľ á áá˝ááá˘
2. Appeal to Pity
[Argumentum ad misericordiam]
Is committed when one is persuaded to accept the conclusion because of pity or sympathy.
áá
á°áá ááľá¨á á¨áá
á¨áĽ ááá
#á ááłáá á¨áááááá áááááľ á˛áá¨á á¨áááá á¨áľá
á°áľ á áľá°áłá°áĽ ááᢠá¨appeal to force á¨ááá¨á:-
đáŤáá á ááľááŤáŤáľ áá[Force] áá
áá á°áá á ááłáá [pity] ááá˘
đáŤáá á á°áá áá á á ááŁá˘á áá áľááá°áá°á ááłáľ ááááŤá áá
áá á°áá á áŁáá¤áą áá áľááá°áá°á ááłáľ [unfortunate consequence] ááááŤáá˘
áĽáľáŞ á ááľ ááłá áĽááá°áľđ
A weak student to his instructor
"Pr
Fallacy Note áĽáá°áá¨á°áá ááááŁáᣠááśáš áĽáĽá ááĽá áŤá áá¸áᣠá á˝áŽá áá á¨á°áááľ áá áĽáá°áááŁá˝á á°áľá á ááđ
á á°á¨á᪠á ááą ááľáĽ áááŤá áááśá˝ á°áŤáˇáጠá
áá
ᣠá ááááŽáŁ ááľááľáŁ á°áá¨áľ ááááđ á ááŤá á ááááá áľáááłáá˝á!
á ááĽáŁá˝á á¨á¨á¨áłá˝á á áá áĽáŤá áááá Randomly áĽáááááᢠFallacy ááááŞáŤ ConceptáĄá áá¨áłáľ á¨á፠á¨á°ááŤáŠ áĽáŤááá˝á á á°áἠááľáŤáľá áá áááá˘
á°á
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Logic True/ False
1. In an inductive argument, it is intended that the conclusion contain more information than the premises
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True
2. In a deductive argument, the conclusion is not supposed to contain more information than the premises
â
True
3. The form of argumentation the arguer uses may allow one to determine whether an argument is inductive or deductive.
â
True
4. The actual strength of the link between premises and conclusion may allow one to determine whether an argument is inductive or deductive.
â
True
5. A geometrical proof is an example of an inductive argument.
â
False
6. Most arguments based on statistical reasoning are deductive.
â
False
7. If the conclusion of an argument follows merely from the definition of a word used in a premise, the argument is deductive
â
True
8. An argument that draws a conclusion about a thing based on that thing's similarity to something else is a deductive argument.
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False
9. An argument that draws a conclusion that something is true because someone has said that it is, is a deductive argument.
â
False
10. An argument that presents two alternatives and eliminates one, leaving the other as the conclusion, is an inductive argument
â
False
11. An argument that proceeds from knowledge of a cause to knowledge of an effect is an inductive argument
â
True
12. If an argument contains the phrase "it definitely follows that," then we know for certain that the argument is deductive
â
False
13. An argument that predicts what will happen in the future, based on what has happened in the past, is an inductive argument.
â
True
14. Inductive arguments always proceed from the particular to the general.
â
False
15. Deductive arguments always proceed from the general to the particular.
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False
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#Answer
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. True
5. True
6.D
7.C
8.D
9.B
10.C
11.B
12.C
13. No answer
14.D
15.A
16. Immediacy, Consistency and Intensity
17. Attention, Retention, Motor Reproduction, Motivation
18. Is the ability to remember(recall) the first(primacy effect) and the last(recency effect)...
19. 7plus or minus 2
20. a. Electric shock
b. Frighten and cry
c. Toy
d. Fear (Frighten and cry)
Any á
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