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📌 Notes on Chemical Bonding 🔻Chemical bond:- Chemical bond is the attractive force which holds various constituents together in a molecule. There are three types of chemical bonds: Ionic Bond, Covalent Bond, Co-ordinate Bond. 🔻Octet Rule: Atoms form chemical bonds in order to complete their octet i.e. eight electrons in their valence shell. 📍Lewis Structures: Pair of bonded electrons is by means of a ‘dash’ (-) usually called a ‘bond’. Lone pairs or ‘non-bonded’ electrons are represented by ‘dots’. Electrons present in the last shell of atoms are called valence electrons. ✌️Exceptions to the Octet Rule: 🔻Species with odd number of electrons: NO, NO2, 🔻Incomplete octet for the central atom:  LiCl, BeH2 and BCl3 🔻Expanded octet for the central atom: PF5, SF6 and H2SO4 🔻Formal Charge: Formal charge is the difference between the number of valence electrons in an isolated atom and number of electrons assigned to that atoms in Lewis structure. Formal charge = [Total number of valence electrons in the free atom ) - (Total number of lone pairs of electrons) -1/2(Total number of shared electrons i.e. bonding electrons)] 📍Resonance: For molecules and ions showing resonance it is not possible to draw a single Lewis structure. All the properties of such species can only be explained  by two or more Lewis structures. Example: Resonance of O3 📍Ionic Bonding: 🔻Formation of Ionic Bond: Formation of ionic bond takes place between a metal and a non-metal by transfer of electron. Formation of gaseous cations A(g) + I.E. → A+ (g) + e 📍Ionization Energy Formation of gaseous anions X(g) + e → X- (g) + E.A 📍Electron Affinity Packing of ions of opposite charges to form ionic solids A+ (g) + X- (g) →AX (s) +Energy 📍Lattice energy Conditions required of formation of ionic bonds: 🔻Low I.E of cation. 🔻High E.A of anion. 🔻High lattice energy. ⚡Covalent Bonding: Covalent bond is formed between two non-metals by sharing of electrons. 🔻Electron pairs which participate in bonding are called bond pairs. 🔻Electron pairs which do not participate in bonding are called lone pairs. There could be single, double or triple covalent bonds between two elements depending on the number of electrons being shared. 📍VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion) Theory: The shape of the molecule is determined by repulsions between all of the electron pairs present in the valence shell. 🔻Order of the repulsion: Lone pair.Lone pair > Lone pair. Bond pair > Bond pair. Bond pair. 🌡️Repulsion among the bond pairs is directly proportional to the bond order and  electronegativity difference between the central atom and the other atoms. Join our Educational Channels: ▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬ 📚JOIN: @Educational_Question 📚JOIN: @Et_Study_Notes 📚JOIN: @Oromia_Educational_News 📚JOIN: @AmboIfaBoru 📚JOIN: @General_questions_always

📚 Important Vocabulary for Entrance Exam 📚 1. Imbecility – Extreme foolishness or lack of intelligence. 2. Senility – Weakness of mind due to old age. 3. Dotage – Mental decline in old age. 4. Superannuation – Retirement or pension money. 5. Unintelligible – Hard to understand. 6. Illegible – Hard to read. 7. Indelible – Cannot be erased. 8. Incorrigible – Cannot be corrected. 9. Anthropology – Study of humans and society. 10. Archaeology – Study of ancient things. 11. Ethnology – Study of different cultures. 12. Snob – A person who looks down on others. 13. Literate – Able to read and write. 14. Disciplinarian – A strict person. 15. Instantaneous – Happens immediately. 16. Stickler – A person who insists on rules. 17. Boaster – A person who brags. 18. Monarchy – Rule by a king or queen. 19. Plutocracy – Rule by the rich. 20. Oligarchy – Rule by a small group. 21. Autocracy – Rule by one person. 22. Pedantic – Showing off knowledge. 23. Pompous – Arrogant and grand. 24. Verbose – Using too many words. 25. Ornate – Highly decorated. 26. Schedule – A list of planned events. 27. Agenda – A list of topics for a meeting. 28. Timetable – A table showing times of events. 29. Plan – A way to do something. 30. Evade – Escape or avoid. 31. Avoid – Stay away from something. 32. Evacuate – Leave a dangerous place. 33. Exterminate – Destroy completely. 34. Monarch – A king or queen. 📌 This may help you in your Entrance Exam! ▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬ 📚 Join our Educational Channels: 📌 @Educational_Question 📌 @Et_Study_Notes 📌 @Oromia_Educational_News 📌 @AmboIfaBoru 📌 @General_questions_always

To help answer the 25 questions provided earlier in our questions Channel. and offer guidance on related topics, the following detailed and concise note covers essential concepts in Chemistry: Atomic Theory: Dalton's Atomic Theory postulated that elements consist of indivisible atoms that combine in fixed ratios to form compounds, emphasizing the conservation of mass. Subatomic Particles: Electrons, discovered in the cathode ray tube experiment, are negatively charged particles found in the electron cloud surrounding the nucleus. Nuclear Structure: Rutherford's gold foil experiment revealed the existence of a dense, positively charged nucleus within the atom, surrounded by electrons. Neutron Characteristics: Neutrons are neutral subatomic particles located in the nucleus, contributing to the stability of the atomic structure. Bohr Model: Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom introduced quantized energy levels and explained atomic spectra, enhancing the understanding of atomic behavior. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: This principle states the impossibility of precisely determining both the position and momentum of a particle simultaneously. Quantum Numbers: Four quantum numbers (n, l, ml, ms) define the unique quantum state of an electron in an atom, specifying its energy, shape, orientation, and spin. Electron Configuration: The 3p subshell can hold a maximum of 6 electrons, distributed among the three degenerate p orbitals within the third energy level. Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom can share the same set of quantum numbers, including their spin orientations. Chemical Bonding: Covalent bonds form when atoms share electron pairs to achieve a stable electron configuration, leading to molecular formation. Hybridization Geometry: In sp³ hybridization, the carbon atom adopts a tetrahedral geometry due to the combination of one s and three p orbitals. Metallic Bonding: Metallic bonds involve a "sea" of delocalized electrons shared among metal atoms, enhancing electrical conductivity and malleability. Kinetic Molecular Theory: Gas particles are in constant motion, colliding with each other and the container walls, explaining gas properties based on particle behavior. Boyle's Law: Describes the inverse relationship between gas pressure and volume at constant temperature, highlighting gas compressibility. Liquid Properties: Liquids have definite volumes but no fixed shape, adapting to the container due to weak intermolecular forces and fluidity. Reaction Rate Factors: Concentration, temperature, and catalysts influence reaction rates by altering the frequency of collisions and activation energy. Equilibrium State: Reversible reactions reach equilibrium when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal, establishing a dynamic balance. Le Chatelier's Principle: Systems at equilibrium adjust to counteract disturbances, maintaining equilibrium by shifting reaction conditions. Carboxylic Acids: Contain the -COOH functional group, exhibiting acidic properties due to the presence of a carboxyl group. Alcohol General Formula: Alcohols have the general formula R-OH, where R represents an alkyl group attached to the hydroxyl (-OH) functional group. Esters: Organic compounds responsible for fruity aromas in fruits, formed by the reaction between carboxylic acids and alcohols. Fats and Oils: Belong to the ester class of organic compounds, formed from the esterification of fatty acids with glycerol. Hydrogenation Process: Converts unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen atoms to double bonds, increasing saturation. Alcohol Nomenclature: Named using the -ol suffix to indicate the presence of the hydroxyl functional group (-OH) in the molecule. Valence Bond Theory: Explains chemical bonding through the overlap of atomic orbitals to form covalent bonds, emphasizing electron sharing. Join our Educational Channels: ▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬ 📚JOIN: @Educational_Question 📚JOIN: @Et_Study_Notes 📚JOIN: @Oromia_Educational_News 📚JOIN: @AmboIfaBoru 📚JOIN: @General_questions_always

What is lever? 👉🏿 A lever is a rigid rod able to rotate about a fixed point known as a fulcrum, formed by the joint. Any force applied to the lever is called the effort. ✍🏿 A force that resists the motion of the lever, such as the downward force exerted by a weight on the bar, is called the load or the resistance. ✍🏿 A lever with a mechanical advantage less than 1 has the effort applied closer to the fulcrum than the load; this is typically referred to as a third-class lever, where the effort is between the fulcrum and the load. ✍🏿 A mechanical advantage less than 1 means the effort force needs to be greater than the load force to move the object. ✍🏿 In a third-class lever, the fulcrum is at one end, the load is at the other end, and the effort is applied in between, resulting in a short effort arm compared to the load arm. ✍🏿 Effort arm shorter than load arm: The distance from the fulcrum to the point where the effort is applied (effort arm) is smaller than the distance from the fulcrum to the load (load arm). Example: A pair of tweezers or a human bicep muscle flexing to lift an object. ✍🏿 The contraction of the muscles is the effort and the part of the body concerned is known as the resistance or load. ✍🏿 Bones of the body act as levers (a mechanical device) which create a mechanical advantage of strength or speed. Join our Educational Channels: ▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬ 📚JOIN: @Educational_Question 📚JOIN: @Et_Study_Notes 📚JOIN: @Oromia_Educational_News 📚JOIN: @AmboIfaBoru 📚JOIN: @General_questions_always

Metabolic Processes Definition: Metabolic processes are the chemical reactions that occur within a living organism to maintain life. These processes enable organisms to grow, reproduce, repair damage, and respond to their environment. --- Types of Metabolic Processes: 1. Anabolism (Building Up) - Definition: The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy (endothermic). - Examples: - Protein synthesis from amino acids. - DNA replication. - Photosynthesis (in plants). - Purpose: Supports growth, repair, and storage of energy. 2. Catabolism (Breaking Down) - Definition: The breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy (exothermic). - Examples: - Cellular respiration (glucose breakdown to produce ATP). - Digestion of food into nutrients. - Fat breakdown into fatty acids and glycerol. - Purpose: Provides energy for bodily functions and building blocks for anabolism. --- Key Components of Metabolism: 1. Enzymes: - Proteins that act as biological catalysts to speed up metabolic reactions. - Highly specific to their substrate (e.g., amylase breaks down starch). 2. Energy Molecule (ATP): - Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is the primary energy currency of cells. - Energy is released when ATP is broken into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a phosphate group. 3. Metabolic Pathways: - Linear Pathways: Sequence of reactions leading to a final product (e.g., glycolysis). - Cyclic Pathways: Reactions regenerate starting materials (e.g., Krebs cycle). --- Examples of Metabolic Processes: 1. Photosynthesis (Anabolic): - Occurs in plants. - Converts carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen using sunlight. - Equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O + => C6H12O6 + 6O2 2. Cellular Respiration (Catabolic): - Occurs in all living organisms. - Breaks down glucose into water, carbon dioxide, and ATP. - Equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 => 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP 3. Protein Synthesis (Anabolic): - Ribosomes use mRNA to assemble amino acids into proteins. 4. Lipid Breakdown (Catabolic): - Lipids are broken into fatty acids and glycerol, which can be used for energy production. --- Regulation of Metabolic Processes: 1. Hormones: - Insulin: Promotes glucose storage and uptake. - Glucagon: Stimulates glucose release into the blood. - Thyroxine: Regulates the overall metabolic rate. 2. Feedback Mechanisms: - Negative Feedback: Maintains balance (e.g., ATP production halts when energy is sufficient). --- Importance of Metabolic Processes: - Provides energy for cellular activities. - Supplies raw materials for growth and repair. - Regulates body temperature and homeostasis. Join our Educational Channels: ▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬ 📚JOIN: @Educational_Question 📚JOIN: @Et_Study_Notes 📚JOIN: @Oromia_Educational_News 📚JOIN: @AmboIfaBoru 📚JOIN: @General_questions_always

Candidates who are retaking the Grade 12 national exam can register online using the self-registration address https://register.eaes.et/Online . This internet registration application is self-service and subscribers can request the support they need from the center. Please use the information provided in this message to help registrants register easily. Educational Assessment and Testing Service