pharmacy all semester notes and study material previous year qus

1⃣ SMALLEST MUSCLE :- STAPEDIUS (EAR). 2⃣ SMALLEST BONE :- STAPES (EAR). 3⃣ SMALLEST ENDOCRINE GLAND:- PINEAL GLAND 4⃣ SMALLEST CRANIAL NERVES:- TROCHLEAR. 5⃣ SMALLEST BLOOD VESSELS:- CAPILLARIES. 6⃣ NO.OF MUSCLES :- 640 7⃣ NUMBER OF BONES :- ● SKULL - 22 ● FACE -14 ● NECK -7 ● CHEST -25 ● ARMS -6 ● HAND - 27 ● FOOT - 33 ● WRIST - 8 ● VERTEBRAE - 33 ● EAR -3

ACE Inhibitors — Adverse Effects Mnemonic: “CAPTOPRIL”➡️ C — Cough A — Angioedema P — Proteinuria T — Taste changes O — Orthostatic hypotension P — Pregnancy contraindicated R — Rash I — Increased renin L — Lower GFR

Summary of Glycosides📚 1. Definition & Importance: Glycosides are organic compounds that, upon hydrolysis, yield a sugar moiety (glycone) and a non-sugar moiety (aglycone or genin). - Aglycone → Responsible for biological activity and therapeutic properties. - Glycone → Improves solubility and absorption in the body. - The bond between them is called the glycosidic linkage. 2. Classification of Glycosides: A) Based on Pharmacological Action - Cardiac Glycosides → Digitalis, Strophanthus (Increase cardiac contractility). - Anthraquinone Glycosides → Senna, Aloe, Cascara (Laxatives). - Saponin Glycosides → Liquorice, Ginseng (Expectorant, Immune-modulator). - Flavonoid Glycosides → Gingko, Rutin (Capillary strengthening, Antioxidant). - Cyanogenetic Glycosides → Bitter Almond, Wild Cherry (Release hydrocyanic acid). - Isothiocyanate Glycosides → Black Mustard (Rubefacient, Vesicant). B) Based on Glycosidic Linkage: - O-Glycosides → Link via oxygen (Senna, Rhubarb). - C-Glycosides → Link via carbon (Aloe, Cascara). - S-Glycosides → Link via sulfur (Sinigrin from Black Mustard). - N-Glycosides → Link via nitrogen (Nucleosides). 3. Important Examples of Glycosides: A) Cardiac Glycosides (Used in Heart Failure): - Digitalis (Digitoxin, Digoxin, Lanatosides) → Slow but potent action. - Strophanthus (Strophanthin) → Rapid but short-lasting action. - Thevetia (Thevetin A & B) → Yellow Oleander, Toxic. - Squill (Scillaren A & B) → Used as a cardiac stimulant & expectorant. B) Anthraquinone Glycosides (Laxatives): - Senna (Sennosides A & B) → Strong peristalsis stimulant. - Aloe (Aloin, Barbaloin) → Mild laxative, Skin rejuvenator. - Cascara (Cascarosides) → Gentle bowel stimulant. - Rhubarb (Emodin, Rhein, Aloe-emodin) → Mild purgative & astringent. C) Saponin Glycosides (Foaming & Immune-modulating): - Liquorice (Glycyrrhizin, Glycyrrhetinic acid) → Anti-inflammatory, expectorant. - Ginseng (Ginsenosides) → Adaptogen, Immunomodulator. - Dioscorea (Diosgenin) → Used for steroid synthesis. - Senega (Senegin II) → Expectorant in respiratory diseases. D) Other Glycosides: - Cyanogenetic Glycosides → Bitter Almond (Amygdalin) & Wild Cherry (Prunasin). - Flavonoid Glycosides → Rutin (Retinal hemorrhage treatment), Quercetin (Anti-inflammatory). - Coumarin Glycosides → Psoralea (Leucoderma), Ammi Majus (Melanin stimulant). 4. Chemical Tests for Glycosides: - Keller Kiliani Test → Bluish-green color for digitoxose in cardiac glycosides. - Legal Test → Pink-red color for cardiac glycosides. - Borntrager’s Test → Pink layer in ammonia for Anthraquinone Glycosides. - Modified Borntrager’s Test → Used for C-Glycosides like Aloe.