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پستهای کانال
| 2 | 🔷♻️Animal Tissue♻️🔷
The tissue found in animals have comparatively some different properties than the plant tissue.
♦️Types of Animal Tissue
Animal Tissues are divided as −
➖Epithelial Tissue
➖Connective Tissue
➖Muscular Tissue
➖Nervous Tissue
🍪Epithelial Tissue
➖Epithelial tissues are the covering and protective tissues in the animal body.
➖Epithelial tissue covers almost all organs and cavities within the body.
➖Epithelial tissue also forms a barrier to keep different body systems separate.
➖Epithelial tissue cells are closely packed (as shown in the image given above) and form a continuous layer.
🍪Connective Tissue
➖Connective tissues are made up of the cells those are separated by non-living material, and known as an extracellular matrix.
➖This matrix could be either liquid or rigid.
➖Connective tissues are further divided as −
* Fibrous connective tissue
* Skeletal connective tissue and
* Fluid connective tissue
➖Tendons are the example of fibrous connective tissue.
➖Bone is an example of a skeletal connective tissue.
➖Bone forms the framework and provide supports to the body.
➖Blood is an example of fluid connective tissue.
➖Blood has a fluid (liquid) matrix known as plasma.
➖In plasma, the red blood cells (RBCs), the white blood cells (WBCs), and the platelets are remaining suspended.
🍪Muscular Tissue
➖Muscular tissue largely consists of elongated cells, and also known as muscle fibers.
➖The muscular tissue is accountable for the movements in our body.
➖The muscular tissue contains special proteins known as contractile proteins; and this protein helps in contraction and relaxation and supports free movement.
🍪Nervous Tissue
➖The brain, spinal cord, and nerves all are composed of the nervous tissue.
➖Cells of the nervous tissue are extremely particular and sensitive for being stimulated and then transmitting the stimulus swiftly from one place to another within the body.
➖The cells of nervous tissue are known as nerve cells or neurons.
➖Nerve impulses allow us to move our muscles whenever we want to do so. | 222 |
| 3 | ☘️🌴Transportation in Plants☘️🌴
➖The plants have low energy needs, as they use relatively slow transport systems.
➖Plant transport systems move energy from leaves and raw materials from roots to all their parts.
➖The xylem (tissue) moves water and minerals obtained from the soil to all other parts of the plants.
➖The phloem (tissue) transports products of photosynthesis from the leaves (where they are synthesized) to other parts of the plant.
Movement of Water in Plants
➖Water moves into the root from the soil and then steady it moves into the root xylem, creating a column of water, which is progressively pushed upwards.
➖Evaporation of water molecules from the cells of a leaf (see the image given above) creates a suction process, which pulls water from the xylem cells of roots; this process keeps going on.
➖The loss of water in the form of vapor from the leaves (i.e. aerial parts) of the plant is known as transpiration.
➖Transpiration, likewise, helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals dissolved in it from roots to the leaves.
➖Transpiration also helps in the temperature regulation (in plants).
➖The transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is known as translocation, which occurs in the part of the vascular tissue known as phloem.
➖Along with photosynthesis products, the phloem also transports amino acids and other substances, which are ultimately delivered to roots, fruits, seeds, and to growing organs. | 190 |
| 4 | 💈Tissues💈
Tissues are categorized as −
Plant Tissue
Animal Tissue
♦️Plant Tissue
Following are the major types of plant tissue −
➖Meristematic Tissues
➖Permanent Tissues
▪️Simple Permanent Tissues
➖Parenchyma
➖Collenchyma
➖Sclerenchyma
➖Epidermis
▪️Complex Permanent Tissue
➖Xylem
➖Phloem
▪️Meristematic Tissue
➖Meristematic tissue mainly consists of actively dividing cells, and helps in increasing the length and thickening the stems of the plant.
➖Meristematic tissue, commonly, present in the primary growth regions of a plant, for example, in the tips of stems or roots.
➖Depending on the region (where the meristematic tissues are found); meristematic tissues are classified as apical, lateral, and intercalary (see the image given below).
➖Apical meristem (as shown in the above image) is present at the growing tips of stems and roots and helps in their growth.
➖Lateral Meristem is found in stem or root region and helps in their growth.
➖Intercalary meristem is found at the base of the leaves or internodes (on twigs) and helps in growth.
🔸Permanent Tissue
Cells of meristematic tissue later differentiate to form different types of permanent tissue.
Permanent Tissue is further categorized as −
➖Simple Permanent Tissue and
➖Complex Permanent Tissue
🔸Simple Permanent Tissue
Simple Permanent Tissue further categorized as −
➖Parenchyma
➖Collenchyma
➖Sclerenchyma
➖Epidermis
🔸Parenchyma tissue provides support to plants and also stores food.
🔸Sometimes, parenchyma tissue contains chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis, in such a condition, it is known as collenchyma.
🔸The collenchyma tissue provides flexibility to plant and also provides mechanical support (to plant).
🔸The large air cavities, which are present in parenchyma of aquatic plants, give buoyancy to the plants and also help them float, are known as aerenchyma.
🔸The Sclerenchyma tissue makes the plant hard and stiff. For example, the husk of a coconut is made up of sclerenchymatous tissue.
🔸The cells of Sclerenchyma tissue normally are dead.
🔸The outermost layer of cells is known as epidermis.
🔸The epidermis is usually made up of a single layer of cells.
🔸The entire surface of a plant has the outer covering of epidermis, which protects all the parts of the plant.
🔷Complex Permanent Tissue
The complex tissue, normally, consists of more than one type of cells which work together as a unit.
Complex tissues help in the transportation by carrying organic material, water, and minerals up and down in the plants.
🔸Complex Permanent Tissue is categorized as;
➖Xylem
➖Phloem
🔸Xylem, normally, consists of tracheid, vessels, xylem parenchyma, and xylem fibers.
🔸Xylem is accountable for the conduction of water and mineral ions/salt.
🔸Phloem, normally, is made up of four types of elements namely −
➖Sieve tubes
➖Companion cells
➖Phloem fibers and
➖Phloem parenchyma
🔸Phloem tissue transports food from leaves to other parts of the plant. | 195 |
| 5 | Excretory System
NEET PYQS
Nephron
✓Henles loop is hairpin shaped .
✓Henles loop is next part of tubule
which has a
1. Descending Limb
2. Ascending Limb
✓Ascending limb continues as another
highly coiled tubular region called
DCT
✓DCT of many nephron open into a
straight tube called Collecting Duct
✓Collecting Duct converge and open
into the renal pelvis through
medullary pyramids in Calyces
Give Hearts ❤️🌹❤️ | 428 |
| 6 |  Chemistry in everyday life
NEET 2021
Narcotics -Morphine etc
Non Narcotics -Aspirin and Paracetamol | 313 |
| 7 | Hydrogen
Expected in NEET
Dihedral angle in gas and solid | 285 |
| 8 | Ncert Endocrine
Important line
Modified to learn easily | 246 |
| 9 | S block
JEE MAINS 2023
Best method for preparation of BeF2
Expected in NEET 2024 | 249 |
| 10 | 🔰Proteins🔰
✍️Introduction
➖Proteins, which are basically biomolecules, play wide range of functions in the body of a living organism.
➖Proteins are made up of tiny elements of different types of amino acids.
➖A sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is known particularly by the sequence of a gene; gene is encoded in the genetic code.
➖After formation, proteins exist for a fixed period of time and are then degraded and recycled.
➖The proteins get recycled by the cell's machinery by the process of protein turnover.
➖Most of the proteins contain linear polymers made up of series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids.
➖The amino acids in a polypeptide chain are connected by peptide bonds.
➖The peptide bond, usually, has two resonance forms, which contribute some double-bond characters.
✍️Protein Structure
➖Most of the proteins illustrate unique 3-dimensional structures.
➖However, proteins have not a rigid structure, but rather, proteins may vary between several related structures especially when they perform their functions.
✍️Types of Protein
➖Enzymes − enzymes play important role especially during the breakdown of molecules. Enzymes are also required for the digestion and growth of the cell.
➖Structural Proteins − such type of proteins provide strength to cells, tissues, and organs.
➖Signaling Proteins − Such proteins facilitate cells to communicate with each other by providing signals.
➖Defensive Proteins − Such proteins help organisms to fight with infection and support damaged tissue in healing fast.
➖Hormone − Some hormones are proteins that help in metabolic activities. | 226 |
| 11 | Notes on Molecular Basis of Inheritance
DNA
(1) DNA is a long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides.
(2) The length of the DNA depends on the number of nucleotide pairs present in it.
(3) Bacteriophage lambda has 48,502 base pairs.
Central dogma of molecular biology
(1) Crick proposed the Central dogma in molecular biology
(2) It states that the genetic information flows from DNA à RNA à Protein.
(3) In some viruses like retroviruses, the flow of information is in reverse direction, which is from RNA à DNA à mRNA à Protein.
Structure of polynucleotide chain:
(1) A nucleotide has three components-
(a) A nitrogen base
(b) A pentose sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA)
(c) A phosphoric acid.
(2) There are two types of nitrogen bases:
(a) Purines (Adenine and Guanine)
(b) Pyrimidines (Cytosine, Uracil and Thymine)
(3) Adenine, Guanine and Cytosine are common in RNA and DNA.
(4) Uracil is present in RNA and in DNA in place of Uracil, Thymine is present.
(5) In RNA, Pentose sugar is ribose and in DNA, it is Deoxyribose.
(6) Based on the nature of pentose sugar, two types of nucleosides are formed - ribonucleoside and deoxyribonucleotides.
(7) Two nucleotides are joined by 3’-5’ Phosphodiester linkage to form dinucleotide.
(8) More than two nucleotides join to form polynucleotide chain.
(9) The two strands of DNA (called DNA duplex) are antiparallel and complementary, i.i., one in 5’->3’ direction and the other in 3”->5” direction.
History of DNA
(1) DNA is an acidic substance in the nucleus.
(2) It was first identified by Friedrich Meischer in 1869. He named it as ‘Nuclein”
(3) In 1953 double helix structure of DNA was given by James Watson and Francis Crick, based on X-ray diffraction data produced Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.
Packaging of DNA Helix
(1) The basic unit into which DNA is packed in the chromatin of eukaryotes.
(2) Nucleosome is the basic repeating structural (and functional) unit of chromatin, which contains nine histone proteins.
(3) Distance between two conjugative base pairs is 0.34nm
(4) The length of the DNA in a typical mammalian cell will be 6.6 X109 bp X 0.34 X10-9 /bp, it comes about 2.2 meters.
(5) The length of DNA is more than the dimension of a typical nucleus (10-6m)
DNA Replication
(1) DNA is the only molecule capable of self duplication so it is termed as a living molecule.
(2) All living beings have the capacity to reproduce because of DNA.
(3) DNA replication takes place in S-phase of the cell cycle. At the time of cell division, it divides in equal parts in the daughter cells.
(4) Delbruck suggested three methods of DNA replication i.e.
(i) Dispersive
(ii) Conservative
(iii) Semi-conservative
(5) The process of DNA replication takes a few minutes in prokaryotes and a few hours in eukaryotes.
RNA
(1) RNA is the first genetic material.
(2) RNA is a non hereditary nucleic acid except in some viruses (retroviruses).
(3) RNA used to act as a genetic material as well as catalyst.
(4) It is a polymer of ribonucleotide and is made up of pentose ribose sugar, phosphoric acid and nitrogenous base (A,U,G,C).
(5) RNA may be of two types – genetic and non-genetic. | 223 |
| 12 | 📚Anticholinergic drugs and their toxicity.
What are anticholinergic drugs?
- These are drugs that block the effect of Acetylcholine. Examples of these include atropine, clidinium, belladonna alkaloids, etc.
When do we use them?
- For example, atropine (IM injections) can be used prior to bronchoscopy to decrease respiratory mucus secretions and promote bronchodilation. It can also be used before eye examination to dilate the pupil (atropine sulfate eye drops).
What does Acetylcholine (Ach) do?
- Ach is a neurotransmitter that has functions both in the peripheral nervous system and CNS. In the peripheral nervous system, Ach activates muscles and is a major neurotransmitter in the autonomic nervous system (salivary secretion, increases peristalsis, etc). In the CNS, cholinergic projections arising from the basal forebrain, and brainstem regulate cognitive functions of the brain.
Anticholinergic toxicity:
In PNS:
- ↓Sweating → ↓heat dissipation → ↑body temperature → responsive superficial vasodilation → flushed skin. Symptoms visible: dry skin, increased body temperature, flushed skin.
- ↓ Peristalsis. Symptoms: urinary retention, constipation.
- Paralysis of iris sphincter & ciliary muscle, which leads to mydriasis (dilated pupils), cycloplegia (loss of accommodation)
In CNS:
- Affects CNS pathways, which leads to altered mental status
- Vagal tone at SA node decreases, which leads to tachycardia | 234 |
| 13 | ✍️Notes on Environmental Chemistry:
🔹Components of Environment:
➖Atmosphere: This comprises a blanket of gaseous layer around earth.
➖Hydrosphere: This comprises about 96% of earth’s surface & includes all sources of water like oceans rivers lakes, glaciers, ground water etc.
➖Lithosphere: It refers to earth’s solid crust containing the outer mineral cover. It comprises soil, minerals, organic matter etc.
➖ Biosphere: It refers to the domain of living organism in covalent with atmosphere hydrosphere as well as lithosphere.
🔹Environmental Pollution :
Process of contamination of the environment with harmful wastes arising mainly from human activities.
➖Pollutant: Any substance or species produced either by a natural source or by human activity, which produces adverse effect on the environment.
➖Contaminant: A substance which does not occurs in nature but is introduced by human activity into the atmosphere affecting its composition.
➖Source: The site from which the pollution or contaminants originate.
➖Sink: The material or medium which consumes or interacts with a long lived pollutant is called sink.
➖Receptor : Anything that is affected by the pollutants.
➖Threshold limit value (TLV) : This indicates the permissible limit of a pollutant in atmosphere to which a healthy worker is exposed during hours a day or 40 hours a week for life time without any adverse effects. TLV are determined by experimentation on animals, by use of medical knowledge, epidemiology surveys & environmental studies.
🔹Tropospheric pollution or Air pollution:
It is the atmosphere condition in which the presence of certain concentration produce harmful effects on man and his environment. These substances include:
(i) Gases such as oxides of sulphur, CO, oxide of N2 and hydrocarbons
(ii) Particulate matter such as dust, smoke, fumes etc.
(iii) Radioactive material & many others.
➖Primary pollutants : These are the pollutants which are emitted directly from the sources. Some examples are:
➖Particulate Matter : Such as ash, smoke, dust, fumes etc.
➖Inorganic gases : Such as sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide etc.
🔹Particulate matter:
➖Soot: produced by incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fossils fuels such as coal, fuel oil, natural gas, wood etc in insufficient supply of oxygen.
➖Metal particles: These are released by various metal finishing operation. The micro particles of toxic metal & SO2 gas present in the polluted atmosphere get absorbed on the particles rendering them highly toxic.
➖Metal oxides : They are generated by combustion of fuels containing metallic compounds.
➖Lead salts: Their source is lead tetraethyl (Pb(C2H5)4) which is added to gasoline to improve its antiknock property. In order to avoid deposition of PbO suitable amounts of C2H4Cl2 & C2H4Br2 are added to gasoline along with Pb(C2H5)4.
➖Fly ash: It originates from the combustion of high ash fossil. It contains partially burnt particles of the fuels.
➖Asbestos dust: It originates from industrial units manufacturing asbestos sheets, gaskets ropes etc. Asbestos flowing & asbestos insulations also contribute towards asbestos dust in the atmosphere.
➖Solid Hydrocarbons: These are emitted from petroleum refineries & comprise of paraffins, olefins & aromatics.
➖Dust Particulates: Originate from natural, domestic, industrial or agricultural sources. These are thrown into atmosphere by volcanic eruptions, blowing of dust by wind, mining operations etc.
➖Acid mist : Sulphuric acid mist is produced when SO3 present in the atmosphere comes in contact with moisture. Nitric acid mist is produced when oxides of nitrogen, viz, NO & NO2, undergo the series of reactions in the atmosphere. | 424 |
| 14 | SCIENTIFIC NAME 🔥👀
1. Man - Homo sapiens
2. Paddock - Rana Tigrina
3. Cat - Felis Domestica
4. Dog - Canis Families
5. Cow - Boss Indicus
6. Buffalo - Bubalis Bubalis
7. Bull - Boss Primitive Tars
8. Goat - Kepta Hitamus
9. Sheep - Ovi's Arise
10. Pig - Susphroca domestica
11. Lion - pantheon Leo
12. Tiger - Panthera tigris
13. Cheetah - Panther Pardus
14. Bear - Ursus matitimus carnivera
15. Rabbit - Orictolegus cuniculus
16. Deer - Cervus elaphus
17. Camel - Camelus Domedarius
18. Vixen - Canidae
19. Langur - Hominodia
20. Reindeer - Ruservus duvacelli
21. Fly - Masca Domestica
22. Mango - Magnifera indica
23. Paddy - Oriya Sativa
24. Wheat - Triticum activism
25. Peas - Pisum Sativium
26. Mustard - Brassica Compastories
27. Peacock - Pavo Christie
28. Elephant - Ephilas indica
29. Dolphin - Platenista Ganketica
30. Lotus - Nelumbo nucifera Garten
31. Banyan - Ficus Bandhalensis
32. Horse - Equus Cabellas
33. Sugarcane - Sugarcane Officium
34. Onion - Allium Sepia
35. Cotton - Gasipeum
36. Peanut - Arachis
37. Coffee - Coffea Arabica
38. Tea - Thia Sinensis
39. Angur - Vitus
40. Turmeric - I will take crisp
41. Maize - Jia table
42. Tomato - Lycopersicon esculentum
43. Coconut - Cocoa Nucifera
44. Apple - Melas pumia / Domestica
45. Pear - Pyrus couminis
46. Saffron - Crocus sativius
47. Cashew - Anacardium aromaticum
48. Carrot - Dakas Carota
49. Ginger - Jinjibar Officinal
50. Cauliflower - Brassica oleracea | 340 |
| 15 | 🎓🎓🧩Mathematics formulas🧩🎯🎯
1. (α+в)²= α²+2αв+в²
2. (α+в)²= (α-в)²+4αв
3. (α-в)²= α²-2αв+в²
4. (α-в)²= (α+в)²-4αв
5. α² + в²= (α+в)² - 2αв.
6. α² + в²= (α-в)² + 2αв.
7. α²-в² =(α + в)(α - в)
8. 2(α² + в²) = (α+ в)² + (α - в)²
9. 4αв = (α + в)² -(α-в)²
10. αв =1. (α + в + ¢)² = α² + в² + ¢² + 2(αв + в¢ + ¢α)
12. (α + в)³ = α³ + 3α²в + 3αв² + в³
13. (α + в)³ = α³ + в³ + 3αв(α + в)
14. (α-в)³=α³-3α²в+3αв²-в³
15. α³ + в³ = (α + в) (α² -αв + в²)
16. α³ + в³ = (α+ в)³ -3αв(α+ в)
17. α³ -в³ = (α -в) (α² + αв + в²)
18. α³ -в³ = (α-в)³ + 3αв(α-в)
ѕιη0° =0
ѕιη30° = 1/2
ѕιη45° = 1/√2
ѕιη60° = √3/2
ѕιη90° = 1
¢σѕ ιѕ σρρσѕιтє σƒ ѕιη
тαη0° = 0
тαη30° = 1/√3
тαη45° = 1
тαη60° = √3
тαη90° = ∞
¢σт ιѕ σρρσѕιтє σƒ тαη
ѕє¢0° = 1
ѕє¢30° = 2/√3
ѕє¢45° = √2
ѕє¢60° = 2
ѕє¢90° = ∞
¢σѕє¢ ιѕ σρρσѕιтє σƒ ѕє¢
2ѕιηα¢σѕв=ѕιη(α+в)+ѕιη(α-в)
2¢σѕαѕιηв=ѕιη(α+в)-ѕιη(α-в)
2¢σѕα¢σѕв=¢σѕ(α+в)+¢σѕ(α-в)
2ѕιηαѕιηв=¢σѕ(α-в)-¢σѕ(α+в)
ѕιη(α+в)=ѕιηα ¢σѕв+ ¢σѕα ѕιηв.
» ¢σѕ(α+в)=¢σѕα ¢σѕв - ѕιηα ѕιηв.
» ѕιη(α-в)=ѕιηα¢σѕв-¢σѕαѕιηв.
» ¢σѕ(α-в)=¢σѕα¢σѕв+ѕιηαѕιηв.
» тαη(α+в)= (тαηα + тαηв)/ (1−тαηαтαηв)
» тαη(α−в)= (тαηα − тαηв) / (1+ тαηαтαηв)
» ¢σт(α+в)= (¢σтα¢σтв −1) / (¢σтα + ¢σтв)
» ¢σт(α−в)= (¢σтα¢σтв + 1) / (¢σтв− ¢σтα)
» ѕιη(α+в)=ѕιηα ¢σѕв+ ¢σѕα ѕιηв.
» ¢σѕ(α+в)=¢σѕα ¢σѕв +ѕιηα ѕιηв.
» ѕιη(α-в)=ѕιηα¢σѕв-¢σѕαѕιηв.
» ¢σѕ(α-в)=¢σѕα¢σѕв+ѕιηαѕιηв.
» тαη(α+в)= (тαηα + тαηв)/ (1−тαηαтαηв)
» тαη(α−в)= (тαηα − тαηв) / (1+ тαηαтαηв)
» ¢σт(α+в)= (¢σтα¢σтв −1) / (¢σтα + ¢σтв)
» ¢σт(α−в)= (¢σтα¢σтв + 1) / (¢σтв− ¢σтα)
α/ѕιηα = в/ѕιηв = ¢/ѕιη¢ = 2я
» α = в ¢σѕ¢ + ¢ ¢σѕв
» в = α ¢σѕ¢ + ¢ ¢σѕα
» ¢ = α ¢σѕв + в ¢σѕα
» ¢σѕα = (в² + ¢²− α²) / 2в¢
» ¢σѕв = (¢² + α²− в²) / 2¢α
» ¢σѕ¢ = (α² + в²− ¢²) / 2¢α
» Δ = αв¢/4я
» ѕιηΘ = 0 тнєη,Θ = ηΠ
» ѕιηΘ = 1 тнєη,Θ = (4η + 1)Π/2
» ѕιηΘ =−1 тнєη,Θ = (4η− 1)Π/2
» ѕιηΘ = ѕιηα тнєη,Θ = ηΠ (−1)^ηα
1. ѕιη2α = 2ѕιηα¢σѕα
2. ¢σѕ2α = ¢σѕ²α − ѕιη²α
3. ¢σѕ2α = 2¢σѕ²α − 1
4. ¢σѕ2α = 1 − ѕιη²α
5. 2ѕιη²α = 1 − ¢σѕ2α
6. 1 + ѕιη2α = (ѕιηα + ¢σѕα)²
7. 1 − ѕιη2α = (ѕιηα − ¢σѕα)²
8. тαη2α = 2тαηα / (1 − тαη²α)
9. ѕιη2α = 2тαηα / (1 + тαη²α)
10. ¢σѕ2α = (1 − тαη²α) / (1 + тαη²α)
11. 4ѕιη³α = 3ѕιηα − ѕιη3α
12. 4¢σѕ³α = 3¢σѕα + ¢σѕ3α
» ѕιη²Θ+¢σѕ²Θ=1
» ѕє¢²Θ-тαη²Θ=1
» ¢σѕє¢²Θ-¢σт²Θ=1
» ѕιηΘ=1/¢σѕє¢Θ
» ¢σѕє¢Θ=1/ѕιηΘ
» ¢σѕΘ=1/ѕє¢Θ
» ѕє¢Θ=1/¢σѕΘ
» тαηΘ=1/¢σтΘ
» ¢σтΘ=1/тαηΘ
» тαηΘ=ѕιηΘ/¢σѕΘ
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ᴶᴼᴵᴺ ᴬᴺᴰ ˢᴴᴬᴿᴱ ᵂᴵᵀᴴ ʸᴼᵁᴿ ᶠᴿᴵᴱᴺᴰˢ | 367 |
| 16 | DNA & RNA | 316 |
| 17 | The circulatory system 🙃 | 297 |
| 18 | Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes ❤️ | 296 |
| 19 | +4 > Layers of heart ❤️
> Human heart ventral view
> Conducting system of heart
> Heart beat & heart rate
> Heart - internal structure | 351 |
| 20 | 𝙈𝙤𝙧𝙥𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮 𝙛𝙪𝙧𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙧:-
⚜Underground Stems:-
The stem of some plants lie below the soil surface. They are non-green, store food as means of perennation and vegetative propagation.
They are of following types:-
(a) Rhizome It is a prostrate thick stem growing horizontally beneath the soil surface. It has distinct nodes and internodes. The. nodes bear small scale leaves with buds in their axils, e.g., Zingiber (ginger officinale), Curcuma domestica (turmeric).
(b) Suckers These are non-green slender stem that grows horizontally in the soil and ultimately comes out to form a new aerial shoot. Each sucker contains one or more nodes with scale leaves and axillary buds, e.g., Mentha (podina), Chrysanthemum (guldaudi).
(c) Corm It is a swollen condensed form of rhizome which grows in the vertical direction in the soil. It stores a large amount of food, e.g., Amorphophallus, Colocasia (taro).
(d) Tuber It is a swollen end of underground stem branches. Each tuber has many notches on the surface called eyes or buds, which grow into new plants, e.g, Solanum tuberosum (potato).
(e) Bulb It is a highly reduced disc like stem. It bears a large number of fibrous adventitious roots at its base. Leaf bases form bulblets. The bulblets grow into new plants, e.g., Allium cepa (onion), Allium sativum (garlic). | 424 |
