Science Strangeries

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The Phoenix Cluster The Phoenix Cluster is a massive, Abell class type I galaxy cluster located at its namesake, southern constellation of Phoenix. It was initially detected in 2010 during a 2,500 square degree survey of the southern sky using the Sunyaev Zeldovich effect by the South Pole Telescope collaboration. It is one of the most massive galaxy clusters known, with the mass on the order of 2×1015 M☉,and is the most luminous X-ray cluster discovered, producing more X-rays than any other known massive cluster. It is located at a comoving distance of 8.61 billion light-years (2.64 gigaparsecs) from Earth. About 42 member galaxies were identified and currently listed in the SIMBAD Astronomical Database, though the real number may be as high as 1,000.[6Owing to its extreme properties, the Phoenix Cluster has been extensively studied and is considered one of the most important class of objects of its type. A multiwavelength observational study by M. McDonald and colleagues show that it has an extremely strong cooling flow rate (roughly 3,280 M☉ per annum), described as a runaway cooling flow. This measurement is one of the highest ever seen in the middle of a galaxy cluster. The very strong cooling flow, in contrast to other galaxy clusters, has been a suggested result of the feedback mechanism to prevent a runaway cooling flow which may not yet be established yet in the Phoenix Cluster; the heating mechanism expected to be produced by the central black hole being inadequate to create a feedback (in contrast to the Perseus and Virgo clusters). This is further supported by the high starburst activity of the central galaxy Phoenix A, where stars are formed at 740 M☉ per annum (compared to the Milky Way's 1 M☉ per annum of star production); the central active galactic nucleus attested to not have been producing sufficient energy to ionize the galaxy's gas and prevent starburst activity. The Phoenix Cluster was first reported in a paper by R. Williamson and colleagues during a survey by the South Pole Telescope in Antarctica, being one of the 26 galaxy clusters identified by the survey. The detection has been conducted at frequencies between 95, 150, and 220 GHz, with 14 of the galaxy clusters detected have been previously identified, while 12 – including Phoenix Cluster, being new discoveries. The would-be named Phoenix Cluster (still identified by its numerical catalogue entry SPT-CL J2344–4243) has been remarked to be having "the largest X-ray luminosity of any cluster" described by the survey. A bright, type-2 Seyfert galaxy has also been pronounced lying 19 arcseconds from the apparent center of the cluster that has been identified as 2MASX J23444387-4243124, which would later be named Phoenix A, the cluster's central galaxy

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The Phoenix Cluster The Phoenix Cluster is a massive, Abell class type I galaxy cluster located at its namesake, southern constellation of Phoenix. It was initially detected in 2010 during a 2,500 square degree survey of the southern sky using the Sunyaev Zeldovich effect by the South Pole Telescope collaboration. It is one of the most massive galaxy clusters known, with the mass on the order of 2×1015 M☉,and is the most luminous X-ray cluster discovered, producing more X-rays than any other known massive cluster. It is located at a comoving distance of 8.61 billion light-years (2.64 gigaparsecs) from Earth. About 42 member galaxies were identified and currently listed in the SIMBAD Astronomical Database, though the real number may be as high as 1,000.[6Owing to its extreme properties, the Phoenix Cluster has been extensively studied and is considered one of the most important class of objects of its type. A multiwavelength observational study by M. McDonald and colleagues show that it has an extremely strong cooling flow rate (roughly 3,280 M☉ per annum), described as a runaway cooling flow. This measurement is one of the highest ever seen in the middle of a galaxy cluster. The very strong cooling flow, in contrast to other galaxy clusters, has been a suggested result of the feedback mechanism to prevent a runaway cooling flow which may not yet be established yet in the Phoenix Cluster; the heating mechanism expected to be produced by the central black hole being inadequate to create a feedback (in contrast to the Perseus and Virgo clusters). This is further supported by the high starburst activity of the central galaxy Phoenix A, where stars are formed at 740 M☉ per annum (compared to the Milky Way's 1 M☉ per annum of star production); the central active galactic nucleus attested to not have been producing sufficient energy to ionize the galaxy's gas and prevent starburst activity. The Phoenix Cluster was first reported in a paper by R. Williamson and colleagues during a survey by the South Pole Telescope in Antarctica, being one of the 26 galaxy clusters identified by the survey. The detection has been conducted at frequencies between 95, 150, and 220 GHz, with 14 of the galaxy clusters detected have been previously identified, while 12 – including Phoenix Cluster, being new discoveries. The would-be named Phoenix Cluster (still identified by its numerical catalogue entry SPT-CL J2344–4243) has been remarked to be having "the largest X-ray luminosity of any cluster" described by the survey. A bright, type-2 Seyfert galaxy has also been pronounced lying 19 arcseconds from the apparent center of the cluster that has been identified as 2MASX J23444387-4243124, which would later be named Phoenix A, the cluster's central galaxy

Higgs mechanism In the Standard Model of particle physics, the Higgs mechanism is essential to explain the generation mechanism of the property "mass" for gauge bosons. Without the Higgs mechanism, all bosons (one of the two classes of particles, the other being fermions) would be considered massless, but measurements show that the W+, W−, and Z0 bosons actually have relatively large masses of around 80 GeV/c2. The Higgs field resolves this conundrum. The simplest description of the mechanism adds a quantum field (the Higgs field) which permeates all of space to the Standard Model. Below some extremely high temperature, the field causes spontaneous symmetry breaking during interactions. The breaking of symmetry triggers the Higgs mechanism, causing the bosons it interacts with to have mass. In the Standard Model, the phrase "Higgs mechanism" refers specifically to the generation of masses for the W±, and Z weak gauge bosons through electroweak symmetry breaking. The Large Hadron Collider at CERN announced results consistent with the Higgs particle on 14 March 2013, making it extremely likely that the field, or one like it, exists, and explaining how the Higgs mechanism takes place in nature. The view of the Higgs mechanism as involving spontaneous symmetry breaking of a gauge symmetry is technically incorrect since by Elitzur's theorem gauge symmetries can never be spontaneously broken. Rather, the Fröhlich–Morchio–Strocchi mechanism reformulates the Higgs mechanism in an entirely gauge invariant way, generally leading to the same results. The mechanism was proposed in 1962 by Philip Warren Anderson, following work in the late 1950s on symmetry breaking in superconductivity and a 1960 paper by Yoichiro Nambu that discussed its application within particle physics.

Supercluster A supercluster is a large group of smaller galaxy clusters or galaxy groups. They are among the largest known structures in the universe. The Milky Way is part of the Local Group galaxy group (which contains more than 54 galaxies), which in turn is part of the Virgo Supercluster, which is part of the Laniakea Supercluster. The large size and low density of superclusters means that they, unlike clusters, expand with the Hubble expansion. The number of superclusters in the observable universe is estimated to be 10 million. The existence of superclusters indicates that the galaxies in the Universe are not uniformly distributed; most of them are drawn together in groups and clusters, with groups containing up to some dozens of galaxies and clusters up to several thousand galaxies. Those groups and clusters and additional isolated galaxies in turn form even larger structures called superclusters.Their existence was first postulated by George Abell in his 1958 Abell catalogue of galaxy clusters. He called them "Second-Order clusters", or clusters of clusters. Superclusters form massive structures of galaxies, called "filaments", "supercluster complexes", "walls" or "sheets", that may span between several hundred million light-years to 10 billion light-years, covering more than 5% of the observable universe. These are the largest structures known to date. Observations of superclusters can give information about the initial condition of the universe, when these superclusters were created. The directions of the rotational axes of galaxies within superclusters are studied by those who believe that they may give insight and information into the early formation process of galaxies in the history of the Universe. Interspersed among superclusters are large voids of space where few galaxies exist. Superclusters are frequently subdivided into groups of clusters called galaxy groups and clusters. Although superclusters are supposed to be the largest structures in the universe according to the Cosmological principle, larger structures have been observed in surveys, including the Sloan Great Wall.

The Abell 901/902 supercluster is located a little over two billion light-years from Earth

Galaxy filaments In cosmology, galaxy filaments are the largest known structures in the universe, consisting of walls of galactic superclusters. These massive, thread-like formations can commonly reach 50/h to 80/h Megaparsecs (160 to 260 megalight-years) — with the largest found to date being the Hercules-Corona Borealis Great Wall at around 3 gigaparsecs (9.8 Gly) in length — and form the boundaries between voids. Due to the accelerating expansion of the universe, the individual clusters of gravitationally bound galaxies that make up galaxy filaments are moving away from each other at an accelerated rate; in the far future they will dissolve.Galaxy filaments form the cosmic web and define the overall structure of the observable universe.Discovery of structures larger than superclusters began in the late-1980s. In 1987, astronomer R. Brent Tully of the University of Hawaii's Institute of Astronomy identified what he called the Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex. In 1989, the CfA2 Great Wall was discovered, followed by the Sloan Great Wall in 2003. In January 2013, researchers led by Roger Clowes of the University of Central Lancashire announced the discovery of a large quasar group, the Huge-LQG, which dwarfs previously discovered galaxy filaments in size. In November 2013, using gamma-ray bursts as reference points, astronomers discovered the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, an extremely large filament measuring more than 10 billion light-years across.

The Great Attractor The Great Attractor is a purported gravitational attraction in intergalactic space and the apparent central gravitational point of the Laniakea Supercluster of galaxies. This supercluster contains the Milky Way galaxy, as well as about 100,000 other galaxies. The observed attraction suggests a localized concentration of mass millions of times more massive than the Milky Way. However, it is inconveniently obscured by the Milky Way's galactic plane, lying behind the Zone of Avoidance (ZOA), so that in visible light wavelengths, the Great Attractor is difficult to observe directly. The attraction is observable by its effect on the motion of galaxies and their associated clusters over a region of hundreds of millions of light-years across the universe. These galaxies are observable above and below the ZOA, all are redshifted in accordance with the Hubble flow, indicating that they are receding relative to us and to each other, but the variations in their redshifts are large enough and regular enough to reveal that they are slightly drawn towards the attraction. The variations in their redshifts are known as peculiar velocities, and cover a range from about +700 km/s to −700 km/s, depending on the angular deviation from the direction to the Great Attractor. The Great Attractor itself is moving towards the Shapley Supercluster. Recent astronomical studies by a team of South African astrophysicists revealed a supercluster of galaxies, termed the Vela Supercluster, in the Great Attractor's theorized location.

The Black Death The Black Death was the beginning of the second plague pandemic. The plague created religious, social and economic upheavals, with profound effects on the course of European history. The origin of the Black Death is disputed. Genetic analysis points to the evolution of Yersinia pestis in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and China 2,600 years ago. The immediate territorial origins of the Black Death and its outbreak remains unclear, with some evidence pointing towards Central Asia, China, the Middle East, and Europe. The pandemic was reportedly first introduced to Europe during the siege of the Genoese trading port of Kaffa in Crimea by the Golden Horde army of Jani Beg in 1347. From Crimea, it was most likely carried by fleas living on the black rats that travelled on Genoese ships, spreading through the Mediterranean Basin and reaching North Africa, Western Asia, and the rest of Europe via Constantinople, Sicily, and the Italian Peninsula. There is evidence that once it came ashore, the Black Death mainly spread from person-to-person as pneumonic plague, thus explaining the quick inland spread of the epidemic, which was faster than would be expected if the primary vector was rat fleas causing bubonic plague. In 2022, it was discovered that there was a sudden surge of deaths in what is today Kyrgyzstan from the Black Death in the late 1330s; when combined with genetic evidence, this implies that the initial spread may not have been due to Mongol conquests in the 14th century, as previously speculated. The Black Death was the second great natural disaster to strike Europe during the Late Middle Ages (the first one being the Great Famine of 1315–1317) and is estimated to have killed 30 per cent to 60 per cent of the European population, as well as approximately 33 per cent of the population of the Middle East. There were further outbreaks throughout the Late Middle Ages and, also due to other contributing factors (the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages), the European population did not regain its 14th century level until the 16th century. Outbreaks of the plague recurred around the world until the early 19th century.