Pharmacy study materials 📕📚
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In this channel contain all books of pharmacy from first year to final year and contain information about GPAT, NIPER , CSIR NET More information- https://pharmacystudymaterials2.blogspot.com/?m= https://youtube.com/channel/UCPLEZ1Q3LArlee9JWiZ2c8A
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پستهای کانال
Blood Groups: ABO
✅ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens (chemicals that can induce immune response) on the RBCs namely A and B.
✅Similarly, the plasma of different individuals contain two natural antibodies (proteins produced in response to antigens).
✅ABO blood groups are controlled by the gene I. The plasma membrane of the red blood cells has sugar polymers that protrude from its surface and the kind of sugar is controlled by the gene. The gene (I) has three alleles IA, IB and i.
✅The alleles IA and IB produce a slightly different form of the sugar while allele i does not produce any sugar.
✅Because humans are diploid organisms, each person possesses any two of the three I gene alleles.
✅IA and IB are completely dominant over i, in other words when IA and i are present only IA expresses (because i does not produce any sugar), and when IB and i are present IB expresses.
✅But when IA and IB are present together they both express their own types of sugars: this is because of co-dominance. Hence red blood cells have both A and B types of sugars.
| 2 | 🌟A wateremelon cell can increase its size upto 3,50,000 times
🌟 Arithmetic growth rate - Only one daughter cell continuous to divide while others differentiate and matures
🌟 Geometric growth rate - all the daughter cells produced will divide..Sigmoid growth curve is obtained
🌟 Absolute growth rate - Increase in growth per unit time
🌟 Relative growth rate - Increase in growth per unit time per unit initial parameter
🌟 Relative growth rate also called as Efficiency index
🌟 Differentiation - Conversion of meristamatic cell into structurally and functionally specialised Primary permanent tissue...eg: Formation of primary xylem
🌟 Dedifferentiation - Conversion of primary permanent tissue to Secondary meristems....eg: Formation of cork cambium
🌟 Redifferentiation - Formation of secondary permanent tissus from secondary meristems....eg: Formation of secondary xylem
🌟 Development in plants = Growth + differentiation
🌟 Eg of plasticity - Heterophylly in cotton, coriander, larkspur in which leaves of juvenile and mature stages are different. Heterophylly in buttercup in which leaves in terrestrial and aquatic habitat plants are different
🌟 Plants growth regulators can be any group of small chemical molecule They can be indole compounds eg: Indole 3 acetic acid (IAA). Adenine derivatives eg: N6 furfuryl amino purine, kinetin.....carotenoids eg: abscisic acid....terpenes eg: gibberellic acid....Gases eg: ethylene
🌟 Plant growth promotors - Auxin, Cytokinin, Giberellic acid
🌟 Plant growth inhibitors - Abscisic acid
🌟 Ethylene has both properties
Auxin - Effects
🎓 First isolated from human urine
🎓 IAA & IBA are natural auxins and NAA & 2,4 - D are synthetic auxins
🎓 Auxin initiate roots in stem cuttings
🎓 It promotes flowering in pineapples
🎓 Prevent abscission of young fruit and leaf...promotes abscission of old leaf & fruits
🎓 Promote apical dominance
🎓 2,4-D act as herbicide in dicots
Gibberellins - Effects
🌟 1. Increase length of grape stalks
🌟2. Causes fruits like apple to elongate and improve its shape
🌟3. Delay senescence
🌟4. GA3 promote malting in brewing industry
🌟5. Increase length of stem in sugarcane and increase yield upto 20 tonnes per acre
🌟6. Cause internodal elongation in beet, cabbage, and other rosette plants
Cytokinins - Effects
🌟 1. Promote cell division
🌟2. Overcome apical dominance
🌟3. Promote nutrient mobilisation
Ethylene - Effects
🌟 1. Promotes senescence and abscission
🌟2. Promote ripening
🌟3. Breaks seed and bud dormancy
🌟4. Helps leaf & upper part of shoot to remain above water
🌟5. Initiate flowering in pineapple
Abscissic acid - Effects
🌟1. Inhibits seed germination
🌟2. Also called stress hormone
🌟3. Antagonist to GA
NEET MBBS Notes Study PG UG PDF, [6/6/24, 4:13 PM]
✅Very important points - Human Reproduction
🌟Uterus also called womb.
🌟 Longest unstripped muscles of the body are found in the walls of uterus. (During pregnancy)
🌟 Clitoris is a homologous to the penis in the male.
🌟 Bartholin Glands : It is homologous to Cowper's gland of male
🌟 A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all female mammals.
🌟 The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum which contains antibodies (IgA) absolutely essential to develop resistance for the new-born babies.
⚡️ Liberation of sperms from Sertoli cells of seminiferous tubules is called spermiation.
⚡️ Liberation of sperms from testes is called semination.
⚡️ Liberation of sperms from body of male is called ejaculation .
⚡️ Mammalian sperms are transfered to vagina of female by the process called insemination.
⚡️ In 1 ml of semen, 20 to 120 millions of sperms are present in human being.
⚡️ Leydig's cells mature at 10 yrs. of age.
⚡️ In humans (and most vertebrates), the first polar body does not undergo meiosis II.
⚡️ The first polar body is, therefore, formed merely to get rid of unwanted chromosomes.
⚡️ 65-74 days are required to complete the cycle of spermatogenesis in human being.
NEET MBBS Notes Study PG UG PDF, [6/6/24, 4:13 PM] | 143 |
| 3 | NEET MBBS Notes Study PG UG PDF, [6/6/24, 4:13 PM]
🧠Human Brain🧠
✍️Introduction
➖The brain of a human being is the central organ of the nervous system.
➖The human brain consists of three parts namely the cerebrum, the brainstem and the cerebellum.
➖The brain of a human being plays significant role, as it controls most of the activities of the human body.
➖The brain is located inside the head, and protected by the skull bones.
➖The brain consists of more than 86 billion neurons and almost equal number of other cells as well.
➖Brain activity is made possible because of the interconnections of all the neurons that are linked together.
➖The study of brain functions is known as neuroscience.
➖An adult human brain weighs about 1.2 to 1.4 kg (i.e. average weight); which is about 2% of the total body weight.
✍️Parts of Human Brain
➖A human brain is primarily classified as the −
➭ Forebrain
➭ Midbrain
➭ Hindbrain
➖Forebrain is largely made up of cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus and pineal gland.
➖Midbrain is largely made up of a portion of the brainstem.
➖Hindbrain largely made up of the remaining brainstem, cerebellum and pons.
➖Further, the (brain) hemisphere is conventionally classified into four lobes namely −
➭ Frontal lobe
➭ Parietal lobe
➭ Temporal lobe
➭ Occipital lobe
➖The naming is done according to the skull bones that overlie them.
✍️Cerebrum
➖Divided into nearly symmetrical left and right hemispheres by a deep groove, the cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain.
➖Cerebrum normally controls higher brain functions including language, logic, reasoning, and creativity.
✍️Functions of Human Brain
➖Perceive or sense the signal coming from the (external) environment
➖Giving sense of feelings and emotion
➖Regulating and controlling the human behaviors
➖Regulating and controlling the physical action
➖Regulating the memory function
➖Process of thinking (and other cognitive process)
NEET MBBS Notes Study PG UG PDF, [6/6/24, 4:13 PM]
✅Important Points of NCERT
🌟 All the unicellular eukaryotes are placed in Kingdom Protista.
🌟 Histone protein is absent in chromosome of dinoflagellates, due to this reason dinoflagellates are called mesokaryote.
🌟 Pigments present in dinoflagellates are Chl 'a' and Chl 'c'.
🌟 Stored food of dinoflagellates is starch.
🌟 Cell wall of diatoms is made up of cellulose + silica.
🌟 Pigments present in diatoms are Chl 'a' and Chl 'c'.
🌟 Stored food of diatom is leucosin and fats.
🌟 Mixotrophic nutrition is present in Euglenoids.
🌟 Stored food of Euglenoids is paramylum and fat.
🌟 Slime moulds are also called fungus animal.
🌟 At the time of reproduction slime moulds have cell wall.
🌟 Mode of nutrition is absorptive in fungi
🌟 Cell wall of fungi is made up of chitin.
🌟 In fungi the stored food remains in the form of glycogen and oil.
🌟 Mycelium of class phycomycetes is coenocytic aseptate.
🌟 Phytophthora infestans causes late blight disease in potato. This disease is known as "Famine of Ireland".
🌟 Mycelium of class - ascomycetes is uninucleate septate.
🌟 Class ascomycetes is known as "Sac fungi".
🌟 A. Flemming obtained the antibiotic penicillin from Penicillium notatum.
🌟 Fungus Neurospora is known as "Drosophila of Plant Kingdom".
🌟 Yeast is unicellular or non mycelial fungi.
🌟 Mycelium of class - basidiomycetes is septate and uni or binucleate.
🌟 Basidiomycetes is known as club fungi.
🌟 Special type of septa are found in mycelium of class basidiomycetes which are known as dolipore septum.
🌟 Clamp connection are formed during reproduction in basidiomycetes.
🌟 Puccinia is rust fungus, it causes rust disease in wheat.
🌟 Starting of rust disease (Primary infection) on wheat plants takes place through aeciospores.
🌟 Deuteromycetes is known as Fungi Imperfecti.
NEET MBBS Notes Study PG UG PDF, [6/6/24, 4:13 PM]
✅ Important Points of NCERT
🌟 A single maize root apical meristem can be give rise to more than 17500 new cells per hour | 75 |
| 4 | Substances Reducing Friction
➖The substances that reduce friction are known as lubricants. E.g. when oil, grease, or graphite is applied between the moving part of a machine, then it creates a thin layer; resultantly, moving surfaces do not directly rub against each other that ultimately reduces friction.
➖When a body rolls over the surface of another body, the resistance to its motion is known as the rolling friction. The rolling reduces the force of friction.
➖The frictional force exerted by fluids is known as drag.
➖The frictional force, on an object in a fluid, is dependent on its speed with respect to the fluid.
➖The frictional force depends on the shape of the respective object and also on the nature of the fluid.
➖Fluid friction is minimized by giving suitable shapes to the bodies moving in fluids. | 53 |
| 5 | 🔹 Charles's Law - It states that pressure remaining constant, the volume of a given mass of gas increases or decreases by 1/273 part of its volume at 0 degree celsius for each degree celsius rise or fall of its temperature.
🔹 Coulomb's Law - It states that force of attraction or repulsion between two charges is proportional to the amount of charge on both charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
🔹 Heisenberg principle (uncertainty principle) - It is impossible to determine with accuracy both the position and the momentum of a particle such as electron simultaneously.
🔹 Archimede's principle - It states that a body when wholly or partially immersed in a liquid, experiences an upward thrust which is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by it. Thus, the body appears to lose a part of its weight. This loss in weight is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body.
🔹 Aufbau principle - It states that in an unexcited atom, electrons reside in the lowest energy orbitals available to them.
🔹 Avogadro's Law - It states that equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules.
🔹 Brownian motion - It is a zigzag, irregular motion exhibited by small solid particles when suspended in a liquid or gas due to irregular bombardment by the liquid or gas molecules.
🔹 Bernoulli's principle - It states that as the speed of a moving fluid, liquid or gas, increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases. The aerodynamic lift on the wing of an aeroplane is also explained in part by this principle.
🔹 Gay-Lussac’s Law of combining volumes - Gases react together in volumes which bear simple whole number ratios to one another and also to the volumes of the products, if gaseous — all the volumes being measured under similar conditions of temperature and pressure.
🔹 Graham’s Law of Diffusion - It states that the rates of diffusion of gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of their densities under similar conditions of temperature and pressure.
🔹 Kepler's Law - Each planet revolves round the Sun in an elliptical orbit with the Sun at one focus. The straight line joining the Sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals. The squares of the orbital periods of planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distance from the Sun.
🔹 Law of Floatation - For a body to float, the following conditions must be fulfilled: The weight of the body should be equal to the weight of the water displaced and the centre of gravity of the body and that of the liquid displaced should be in the same straight line.
🔹 Law of conservation of energy - It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it can be transformed from one form to another. Since energy cannot be created or destroyed, the amount of energy present in the universe is always remain constant.
🔹 Newton's First Law of Motion - An object at rest tends to stay at rest, and an object in motion tends to stay in motion, with the same direction and speed in a straight line unless acted upon by some external force.
NEET MBBS Notes Study PG UG PDF, [6/7/24, 8:33 AM]
🔷Notes on Friction🔷
➖Friction is result of the irregularities on the two surfaces in contact of each other.
➖The force of friction is dependent on the irregularities of the surface; if it is greater, then the friction will be greater and if it is smooth, then the friction will be lesser.
➖Effectively, the friction is result of the interlocking of irregularities in the two surfaces.
➖If the two surfaces in contact are pressed harder, then the force of friction will increase.
➖On a frictionless surface, if an object starts moving, it would not stop ever; Without friction, it is not possible to construct a building.
➖Friction produces heat; when a matchstick is rubbed against the rough surface, it catches fire. | 54 |
| 6 | NEET MBBS Notes Study PG UG PDF, [6/7/24, 8:33 AM]
✅Properties of the Electromagnetic Wave
➖ Electromagnetic waves are propagated by oscillating electric and magnetic waves at right angles to each other.
➖ They exhibit the properties of interference and diffraction.
➖ They travel at a speed of 3 × 108m/s in a vacuum.
➖ They are transverse waves.
➖ The relationship between the wavelength (λ) and frequency (c) of an electromagnetic wave is given as follows:
c = v λ
NEET MBBS Notes Study PG UG PDF, [6/7/24, 8:33 AM]
✅Applications of Electromagnetism
➖ Electromagnetism serves as a fundamental working principle for many of the home appliances in household applications.
➖ The Maglev trains or high-speed trains work on the principle of electromagnetism.
➖ Electromagnetic radiations are used in the communication system to transfer data from the source to the receiver.
➖ In industries, starting from small instruments to large power equipment, electromagnetism is used at least at one stage of their work.
NEET MBBS Notes Study PG UG PDF, [6/7/24, 8:33 AM]
❤️❤️ Formulas related to force:❤️❤️
F = ma
F = kx
F = m(vf² - vi²/2S)
F = mv/t
F = md/t²
F = m(vf - vi)/t
F = Area × density × velocity²
F = 1/2 mv²/d
F = 1/2 Pv/d
F = Power/velocity
Fc = mv²/r
Fc = mrw²
Fc/2 = mv²/2r
Fc = 2K.E/r
F = Area × Stress
F = pir² × stress
F = YA × Strain
F = YAl/L
F = pressure × area
F = change in momentum × time interval
F = - 2mVx × Vx/2l
F2 = F1/A1 × A2
F = qE
F = kQ/r²
F = ILB sintheta
F = q (v × B)
F = qE + q(v × B)
📚❣️📚❣️📚❣️📚❣️📚❣️📚
➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖
NEET MBBS Notes Study PG UG PDF, [6/7/24, 8:33 AM]
✅Application of Electromagnetism in Physics (including the Faraday’s Law)
Faraday’s Law is a fundamental law of electromagnetism. This law has widespread applications in various fields including industries, electrical machines etc. some of the major ones are listed below:
🧿 Electrical Transformers
This is a static device which is used for increasing or decreasing thhe voltage or current. It has its applications in generating station, transmission and distribution system. The transformer works on Faraday's law.
🧿 Electrical Generators
The basic working principle of electrical generator is Faraday's law of mutual induction .Electric generator is used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
🧿 Induction Cookers
The Induction cooker also works on principle of mutual induction. When current flows through the coil of copper wire placed below a cooking container, it produces a changing magnetic field. This alternating or changing magnetic field induces an emf and hence the current in the conductive container.
🧿 Electromagnetic Flow Meters
It is used to measure velocity of blood and certain fluids. When a magnetic field is applied to electrically insulating pipe in which conducting fluids are flowing then according to Faraday's law an electromotive force is induced in it. This induced emf is proportional to velocity of fluid flowing.
🧿 Musical Instruments
It is also used in musical instruments like electric guitar, electric violin etc.
NEET MBBS Notes Study PG UG PDF, [6/7/24, 8:33 AM]
♻️ Important Scientific Laws and Theories ♻️
==============================
🔹 Ohm's Law - It states that the current passing through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points provided the physical state and temperature etc. of the conductor does not change.
🔹 Pauli exclusion principle - It explains that no two electrons in the same atom or molecule can have the same set of quantum numbers.
🔹 Raman effect - It is the change in wavelength that occurs when light is scattered by the atoms or molecules in a transparent medium.
🔹 Tyndall effect - The scattering of light by very small particles suspended in a gas or liquid.
🔹 Boyles's Law - It states that temperature remaining constant, volume of a given mass of a gas varies inversely with the pressure of the gas. Thus,
PV = K (constant), where, P = Pressure and V = Volume. | 61 |
| 7 | #Carbon_Nitrogen (C:N)_Ratio
✅Humas - 10 : 1
✅Normal Soil - 10.1 - 12.1
✅Legumes - 20.1 - 30.1
✅Cereals - 90 : 1
✅FYM - 20-30 : 1
✅Sawdust - 400 : 1 ( highest )
✅Microorganism - 4 : 1 - 9 : 1( Lowest) | 63 |
| 8 | 🔰Blood Group🔰
✍️Introduction
➖Based on the presence and absence of antibodies, the blood is classified into different groups.
➖Further, while classification, the presence and absence of the inherited antigenic substances also considered.
➖The types of blood groups are inherited and represent contributions from both the father and the mother.
✍️ABO Blood Group System
➖In human blood, usually, there are two antigens and antibodies.
➖The two antigens are antigen A and antigen B.
➖The two antibodies are antibody A and antibody B.
➖The antigens are remaining in the red blood cells, whereas the antibodies are found in the serum.
➖Based on the antigen property, the blood group of all human beings can be classified as −
➭ Blood Group A − antigen A and antibody B
➭ Blood Group B − antigen B and antibody A
➭ Blood Group AB − antigen A and antigen B and no antibody
➭ Blood Group O − no antigen, but antigen A as well as antibody B
➖Consideration of the ABO system is the most imperative while transfusion of human blood.
➖The ABO blood group systems were first discovered by Karl Landsteiner in 1901.
✍️Rh Blood Group System
➖The Rh system (the meaning of Rh is Rhesus) is another significant blood-group system. It is very important to match Rh system while blood transfusion.
➖Rh antigen first studied in Rhesus monkeys; therefore, its name is given Rh factor/system.
➖The person who does not have Rh antigen is known as Rh negative (Rh-ve) and the person who has the Rh antigen is known as Rh positive (Rh+ve). | 66 |
| 9 | 🛡Sexual Reproduction♻️
➖The sexual mode of reproduction comprises the process of combining DNA from two different individuals.
➖There are two germ-cells (responsible for producing a new organism); one is large and contains the food-stores whereas the other one is smaller and likely to be motile.
➖The motile germ-cell, normally, is known as the ‘male gamete’ and the germ-cell containing the stored food is known as the ‘female gamete.’
🔰Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
➖As shown in the image given below, flowers have different parts, such as sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Among these, stamens and carpels are the reproductive parts and contain the germ-cells.
➖Stamen is the male reproductive part, which produces pollen grains (yellowish substance).
➖Carpel, which is present in the center of a flower, is the female reproductive part.
➖Carpel is made of three parts.
➖The bottom part, which is swollen, is the ovary; the middle part, which is elongated, is known as the style; and the terminal part, which may be sticky, is known as the stigma.
➖The ovary contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell.
➖The male germ-cell that produced by the pollen grain fuses with the female gamete present in the ovule.
➖The fusion of the germ-cells or fertilization produces zygote, which is capable of growing into a new plant.
➖The flower, which contains either stamens or carpels, is known as unisexual, such as papaya, watermelon, etc.
➖The flower, which contains both stamens and carpels, is known as bisexual, such as Hibiscus, mustard, etc.
✅Reproduction in Human Beings✅
Human beings have typical sexual reproduction process where mature male and female mate to produce a new baby.
✍️Male Reproductive System
➖The male reproductive system produces the germ-cells; further, other part of the reproductive system delivers the produced germ-cells to the site of fertilization.
➖The formation of sperms or germ-cells takes place in the testes.
➖The formation of sperm typically requires a lower temperature than the normal body temperature.
➖The testes secrete hormone, namely testosterone that brings changes in the appearance of boys at the time of their puberty.
➖The formed sperms are then delivered through the vas deferens, which unites with a tube coming from the urinary bladder.
➖The urethra, likewise, acts as a common passage for both the sperms and urine.
➖The sperms are fluids that consist of mainly genetic material; it has a long tail that helps to move towards the female germ-cell.
✍️Female Reproductive System
➖The female germ-cells or eggs are produced in the ovaries.
➖The egg is transported from the ovary to the womb through a thin oviduct known as fallopian tube.
➖The two oviducts unite and form an elastic bag-like structure known as the uterus, which opens into the vagina through the cervix.
➖During the sexual intercourse, most likely, the egg and the sperm (zygote) get fertilized and implanted in the lining of the uterus.
➖The thickened lining (of the uterus) and richly supplied blood nourish the growing embryo (in the uterus).
➖The embryo receives nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue known as placenta.
➖Likewise, the development of a child inside the mother’s body, takes about nine months. | 66 |
| 10 | 💥Summary of developmental stages in human:
🌟 After one month of pregnancy, the embryo's heart is formed.
🌟 By the end of the second month of pregnancy the foetus develops limbs and digits.
🌟 By the end of 12 weeks (First trimester), most of the major organ system use formed.
🌟 The first movements of the foetus and appearance of hair on the head are usually observed during the fifth month.
🌟 By the end of 24 weeks (Second trimester), the body is covered with fine hair, eye-lids separate and eye lashes are formed.
🌟 By the end of nine months of pregnancy, the foetus is fully developed and is ready for delivery.
✅ मानव में विकास के चरणों का सारांश :
🔹गर्भावस्था के एक महीने के बाद भ्रूण का हृदय बनता है।
🔹गर्भावस्था के दूसरे महीने के अंत तक भ्रूण में अंग और अंक विकसित हो जाते हैं।
🔹12 सप्ताह (पहली तिमाही) के अंत तक, अधिकांश प्रमुख अंग प्रणाली का गठन हो जाता हैं।
🔹भ्रूण की पहली हलचल और सिर पर बालों की उपस्थिति आमतौर पर पांचवें महीने के दौरान देखी जाती है।
🔹24 सप्ताह (दूसरी तिमाही) के अंत तक, शरीर अच्छे बालों से ढक जाता है, आंखों की पलकें अलग हो जाती हैं और पलकें बन जाती हैं।
🔹 गर्भावस्था के नौ महीने के अंत तक, भ्रूण पूरी तरह से विकसित हो जाता है और प्रसव के लिए तैयार हो जाता है। | 63 |
| 11 | ♦️Revision Notes on Flow of Liquids and Viscosity♦️(3/3)
➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖
Modified formula, η = [η0AT1/2]/[1+(S/T)]
(b) Effect of pressure:- At low pressure, co-efficient of viscosity of a gas varies directly with pressure.
Rate of flow of liquid through a liquid through a capillary tube of radius r and length l,
V= πpr4/8ηl = p/(8ηl/ πr4) = p/R
Here p is the pressure difference between two ends of the capillary and R is the fluid resistance.
Accelerated fluid containers:- tan θ = ax/g
If W be the weight of a body and U be the up thrust force of the liquid on the body then,
(a) The body sinks in the liquid of W>U
(b) The body floats just completely immersed if W=U
Pressure exerted by a column of liquid of height h:- P = hρg
Here, ρ is the density of liquid.
Pressure at a point within the liquid:-
P = P0 +hρg
Here, P0 is the atmospheric pressure and h is the depth of point with respect to free surface of liquid. | 69 |
| 12 | ♦️Revision Notes on Flow of Liquids and Viscosity♦️(2/3)
➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖
Viscosity:- Viscosity is the property of fluids by virtue of which they tend to destroy any relative motion between their layers.
Velocity gradient:- Velocity gradient is defined as the rate of change of velocity with respect to distance.
(a) Velocity gradient = dv/dr
(b) Dimension of velocity gradient = [dv/dr] = [T-1]
(c) Direction of velocity gradient is perpendicular to the direction of flow, directed in the direction of increasing velocity.
(d) Average velocity gradient:- Average velocity gradient is the difference between velocities of two layers separated a unit distance apart.
Average velocity gradient = Δv/Δr
Newton’s law of viscosity:-
In accordance to Newton’s law of viscosity, the viscous drag force depends upon the nature of fluid along with following factors:-
(a) F∝A (common area of two layers)
(b) F∝dv/dr (velocity gradient)
(c) So, F =ηA (dv/dr)
Here η is called coefficient of viscosity of fluid.
Coefficient of viscosity of fluid (ηv) or fugitive elasticity:-
ηv = shear stress/velocity gradient = (F/A)/(dv/dr)
Modulus of rigidity(ηr):-
ηr = shear stress/shear strain = (F/A)/(θ) = (F/A)/(dx/dr)
Here, θ = dx/dr = displacement gradient
Coefficient of viscosity (Absolute viscosity or Dynamic viscosity):-
F= ηA (dv/dr) if A = 1, dv = 1, dr =1, F = η
Co-efficient of viscosity of a fluid is defined as the tangential force per unit area which is required to maintain (or resist) a unit relative velocity between two layers a unit distance apart.
Or
Co-efficient of viscosity of a fluid is defined as the tangential force per unit area which is required to maintain a unit velocity gradient between its layers.
Unit of η:-
S.I:- η = 1 deca poise = 1 N sec/m2
Co-efficient of viscosity of a fluid is said to be one deca-poise if a tangential force of 1 N per meter square is required to maintain a relative velocity of 1 ms-1 between its layer 1 m apart.
C.G.S:- η = 1 poise = 1 dyn sec/cm2
Coefficient of viscosity of a fluid is said to be one poise if a tangential force of 1 dyn per square cm is required to maintain a relative velocity of 1 cms-1 between its layers 1 cm apart.
Relation between deca-poise and poise:-
1 deca-poise = 10 poise
Dimension formula for η:-
η = Fdr/Adv = [M1L-1T-1]
Fluidity:- Reciprocal of coefficient of viscosity of a fluid is called its fluidity.
Fluidity = 1/η
Unit of fluidity: poise-1
Dimension of fluidity: [M-1L1T1]
Kinematic viscosity:- Kinematic viscosity of a fluid is defined as the ration between its coefficient of viscosity to the density of fluid.
Kinematic viscosity = η/ρ
Units of kinematic viscosity:- C.G.S – 1 stoke = cm2 s-1
Kinetic viscosity of a fluid having its dynamic viscosity one poise and density one g cm-3 is said to be 1 stoke.
Dimensional formula of kinematic viscosity = η/ρ = [M0L2T-1]
Critical velocity (Reynold’s Number):- Critical velocity (vc) is the maximum velocity of the flow of liquid flowing in a streamlined flow.
vc = NR η/ρD
Here η is the coefficient of viscosity of liquid, ρ is the density of liquid and D is the diameter of the tube.
Reynold’s Number, NR = ρvcD/ η
Stokes law:- In accordance to Stoke’s law, force of viscosity F depend upon,
(a) Co-efficient of viscosity of fluid η
(b) Radius of the moving body r
(c) Velocity of body v
So, force of viscosity, F = 6π η r v
Terminal velocity:- v = 2/9 [r2 (ρ-σ)/η]
η = 2/9 [r2 (ρ-σ)g/v]
Variation of viscosity with a change in temperature and pressure:-
(a) Effect of temperature:-
η= A /(1+Bt)c
Here A, B and C are constants.
Again, ηv1/2 = Aec/vt
Here, A and C are constants and v is the relative velocity.
(b) Effect of pressure:- Co-efficient of viscosity of liquids increases due to an increase in pressure but there is no relation, so far, to explain the effect.
Change in viscosity of gases:-
(a) Effect of temperature:- Co-efficient of viscosity of a gas at a given temperature is given by,
η= η0AT1/2
Here T is the absolute temperature of gas. | 84 |
| 13 | ♦️Revision Notes on Flow of Liquids and Viscosity♦️(1/3)
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(Mechanical Properties of fluids):-
Characteristic of Ideal fluid:-
(a) It is incompressible
(b) It is non-viscous
(c) Flow of ideal fluid is irrational
(d) It is capable of exhibiting steady flow
Stream line flow:- Flow of a liquid fluid is said to be streamlined if the velocity of a molecule, at any point, coincides with that of the preceding one.
Laminar and Turbulent FlowTube of flow:- A bundle of streamlines having same velocity of fluid elements, over any cross-section perpendicular to the direction of flow, is called a tube of flow.
Laminar flow:- It is a special case of streamline flow in which velocities of all the molecules on one streamline is same throughout its motion.
Turbulent flow:- Whenever the velocity of a fluid is very high or it rushes past an obstacle so that there is a sudden change in its direction of motion, the motion of fluid becomes irregular, forming eddies or whirlpools. This type of motion of fluid is called turbulent flow.
Rate of flow (Equation of continuity):-
Equation of Continuityav= Constant (a1v1=a2v2)
Equation of continuity can be considered to be a statement of conservation of mass.
So, v ∝ 1/a
Velocity of flow of liquid varies inversely as the area of cross-section of the opening from where the liquid comes out.
Total energy of a liquid:-
(a) Kinetic energy:- It is the energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its velocity.
K.E = ½ mv2
K.E per unit mass = ½ v2
K.E per unit volume = ½ [mv2/V] = ½ ρv2
Here, ρ is the density of liquid.
(b) Potential energy:- It is the energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of which of its position.
Potential energy = mgh
P.E per unit mass = mgh/m = gh
P.E per unit volume = mgh/V = ρgh
(c) Pressure energy:- It is the energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its pressure.
Pressure energy = p×V = m (p/ρ)
Pressure energy per unit mass = p/ρ
Pressure energy per unit volume = p×V /V= p
Total energy:- Total energy of a liquid is the sum total of kinetic energy, potential energy and pressure energy.
E= ½ mv2 +mgh+mp/ρ
Total energy per unit mass = ½ v2 +gh+p/ρ
Total energy per unit volume = ½ ρv2 +ρgh+p
Bernoulli’s equation:- It states that the total energy of a small amount of an incompressible non-viscous liquid flowing without friction from one point to another, in a streamlined flow, remains constant throughout the displacement.
(a) ½ mv2 + mgh+ mp/ρ = Constant
(b) ½ v2 +gh+p/ρ = Constant
(c) ½ ρv2 +ρgh+p = Constant or v2/2g + h + p/ρg = Constant
The term v2/2g is called velocity head, h is called gravitational head and p/ρg is called pressure head.
Therefore Bernoulli’s theorem states that in case of an incompressible, non-viscous fluid, flowing from one point to another in a streamlined flow, the sum total of velocity head, gravitational head and the pressure head is a constant quantity.
Limitation of Bernoulli’s equation:-
(a) Force of viscosity, which comes into play in case of fluids in motion has not been accounted for.
(b) Loss of energy due to heat is not accounted for.
(c) When a fluid flows in a curved path, the energy due to centripetal force is also not accounted for.
If v is the relative velocity of top layer w.r.t. any other deeper layer (may be the lowest), then v is lesser for greater depth.
v = K/bd
or v ∝ 1/d
Venturimeter:-
It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of liquids, generally water, through pipes.
The rate of flow of water, Q = a1a2√2hg/[a12-a22]
Torricelli’s theorem (velocity of efflux):-
It states that the velocity of efflux of a liquid (V), from an orifice, is equal to the velocity acquired by a body, falling freely (v), from the surface of liquid to the orifice.
So, V = v = √2gh | 138 |
| 14 |  Drug Regulatory Bodies in the world | 236 |
| 15 | Important Days and Dates in December 2020
Date & Name of Important Days
1 December
*World AIDS Day
2 December
*National Pollution Control Day
2 December
*International Day for the Abolition of Slavery
3 December
*World Day of the Handicapped
4 December
*Indian Navy Day
5 December
*International Volunteer Day
5 December
*World Soil Day
7 December
*Armed Forces Flag Day
7 December
*International Civil Aviation Day
9 December
*International Anti-Corruption Day
10 December
*Human Rights Day
11 December
*International Mountain Day
14 December
*National Energy Conservation Day
15 December
*International Tea Day
16 December
*Vijay Diwas
18 December
*Minorities Rights Day in India
18 December
*International Migrants Day
19 December
*Goa's Liberation Day
20 December
*International Human Solidarity Day
22 December
*National Mathematics Day
23 December
*Kisan Diwas
24 December
*National Consumer Rights Day
25 December
*Christmas Day
25 December
*Good Governance Day (India)
31 December
@pharmacystudymaterials | 1 |
| 16 |  بدون متن... | 332 |
| 17 | Ritonavir is a powerful inhibitor of CYP3A4, thus the metabolism of substrates of this enzyme will be inhibited by Ritonavir.
Important substrates of CYP3A4 are:
💉 Amiodarone
💊 Terfenadine, Astemizole, Cisapride
🩸 Cyclosporine, Tacrolimus
🧬 Lovastatin and other statins
🦠 Calcium channel blockers
🌡 Midazolam
🩹 Protease inhibitors | 379 |
| 18 | #pregnancy #momtobe #childbirth #usmle #neet #doctorlife #medicalstudent #nurselife #pharmacystudents | 30 |
| 19 | Cunningham manual of practical anatomy.pdf | 191 |
| 20 | بدون متن... | 157 |
