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*🛡️Vikramshila University* ♟️Vikramshila University (also called Vikramashila Mahavihara) was one of the most important centers of Buddhist learning in ancient India, alongside Nalanda and Odantapuri. *💎1. Historical Background* *♟️Founded by:-* King Dharampala of the Pala Dynasty *♟️Period:-* Around late 8th or early 9th century CE *♟️Location:-* Present-day Antichak village, Bhagalpur district, Bihar, India *♟️Purpose:-* Established to improve the quality of Buddhist education and to counter the decline in Nalanda’s academic standards. *💎2. Academic Reputation* ♟️Known for Tantric Buddhism (Vajrayana) studies. ♟️Specialized in philosophy, logic, grammar, metaphysics, and Buddhist rituals. ♟️Attracted scholars from Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and Southeast Asia. *💎3. Structure & Organization* ♟️Spread over a large campus with more than 100 rooms for monks. ♟️Had a central stupa, surrounded by a large square monastery. ♟️Six gates, each guarded by scholar-monks. ♟️At its peak, housed about 1,000 monks and 100 teachers. *💎4. Famous Scholars* ♟️Atīśa Dīpaṅkara Śrījñāna – a great Buddhist scholar who later traveled to Tibet and revitalized Buddhism there. ♟️Ratnākaraśānti – renowned philosopher and poet. ♟️Naropa – Indian Buddhist master, teacher of Tibetan translator Marpa. *💎5. Decline* ♟️Destroyed around 1193 CE by Bakhtiyar Khilji during the Muslim invasions, the same period Nalanda was also destroyed. ♟️The ruins were buried under earth for centuries until rediscovery in the late 19th century. *💎6. Present Status* ♟️Excavated remains are protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). ♟️You can still see the monastery layout, stupa base, and ornamental brickwork. ♟️Plans have been proposed to revive Vikramshila as a modern university.

> *Gram Nyayalayas:* ✍️ Gram Nyayalayas, or *village courts,* are established under the *Gram Nyayalayas Act, 2008,* for *speedy and easy access* to the justice system in the *rural areas of India.* ✍️ The Act extends to the whole of India, except to the _*States of Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, and Sikkim and the tribal areas specified in the Sixth Schedule to the Constitution of India.*_ ✍️ Gram Nyayalayas is aimed at _*providing inexpensive justice to people in rural areas at their doorsteps.*_ ✍️ The State governments have been vested with the *authority of setting up one or more nyayalayas* , after proper consultation with the respective *High Court,* in every Panchayat at the *intermediate level or group of adjacent Panchayats* at the _*intermediate level of a district.*_

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The *Lok Sabha defeated the Constitution (131st Amendment) Bill, 2026, aimed at advancing the 33% women's reservation without waiting for the mandated delimitation exercise.*

*🛡️Kalamkari Paintings* ♟️The name comes from kalam, i.e. a pen, which is used to paint these exquisite paintings. ♟️The pen used is made of sharp pointed bamboo, used to regulate the flow of colours. The base is cotton fabric while the colours used are vegetable dyes. ♟️The pen is soaked in a mixture of fermented jaggery and water; one by one these are applied and thereafter, the vegetable dyes are applied ♟️The main centers for this art are Srikalahasti and Machilipatnam in the State of Andhra Pradesh. ♟️The images are drawn free hand and the inspiration comes from Hindu mythology. ♟️Textiles with handwork are also produced here. Kalamkari painting had its existence even during Vijayanagara empire ♟️It has received GI status.

The natural environment or natural world encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally, meaning in this case not artificial. The term is most often applied to the Earth or some parts of Earth. This environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. The concept of the natural environment can be distinguished as components: Complete ecological units   that function as natural systems without massive civilized human intervention, including all vegetation, microorganisms, soile, rocks, the atmosphere, and natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries and their nature. Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries, such as air, water, and climate, as well as energy, radiation, electric chary, and magnetism, not originating from civilized human actions.

🛡️ *Government Securities (G-Sec)* ♟️A Tradable instrument issued by the Central Government or the State Governments. ♟️A G-Sec is a type of debt instrument issued by the government to borrow money from the public to finance its Fiscal Deficit. *💎Kinds* ♟️ *Short* Term (usually called treasury bills, with original maturities of less than one year ♟️ *Long* Term (usually called Government bonds or dated securities with original maturity of one year or more) 💎 *Issuer* ♟️Central Government - issues both, treasury bills & bonds or dated securities ♟️State Government - Only bonds or dated securities [State Development Loans (SDLs)] ♟️G-Secs carry practically no risk of default and, hence, are called risk-free gilt-edged instruments. ♟️ *Issue Mechanism* The RBI conducts Open Market Operations (OMOs) for sale or purchase of G-secs to adjust money supply conditions.

*🛡️Hydrogels* ♟️Hydrogels are three-dimensional networks of water-soluble polymers that can absorb and retain a large amount of water without losing their structural integrity. ♟️They are super-soft and transparent materials that can shrink or swell when exposed to water. ♟️Hydrogels are made by crosslinking polymer chains through chemical reactions. ♟️Poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (pHEMA): This was the first hydrogel material used in contact lenses, offering flexibility and comfort. ♟️Silicone Hydrogel Lenses: These are a variation of hydrogel lenses that improve oxygen permeability, allowing for extended wear and increased comfort. ♟️Modified Hydrogels: These are hydrogels that have been modified to enhance their properties, such as increasing water content and oxygen permeability.

🛡️ *AD HOC JUDGE* ♟️When there is a lack of quorum of the permanent judges to hold or continue any session of the Supreme Court, the Chief Justice of India can appoint a judge of a High Court as an ad hoc judge of the Supreme Court for a temporary period. ♟️He can do so only after consultation with the chief justice of the High Court concerned and with the previous consent of the president. ♟️The judge so appointed should be qualified for appointment as a judge of the Supreme Court. ♟️It is the duty of the judge so appointed to attend the sittings of the Supreme Court, in priority to other duties of his office. While so attending, he enjoys all the jurisdiction, powers and privileges (and discharges the duties) of a judge of the Supreme Court.

*🛡️Tropical Mansoon Climate* *💎Distribution* ♟️Some parts of world experience seasonal winds like land and sea breezes but on larger scale. ♟️These are Tropical monsoon lands with on-shore wet monsoons in summer and off-shore dry monsoons in winter. ♟️Best developed in Burma,Thailand, Laos,Cambodia,parts of vietnam and south china. *💎Climatic Conditions* ♟️In summer sun is overhead at the tropic of cancer, the land masses of northern hemisphere heated. ♟️A low pressure is set up in Central asia. ♟️At the same time Southern hemisphere experiences a winter and a region of high pressure created. ♟️Winds blows outwards as the south - east monsoon and after crossing the equator are drawn towards continental low pressure area reaching Indian sub-continent. *💎Seasons Of Tropical Mansoon Climate* ♟️Cool, dry season. ( oct to Feb ) ♟️Hot dry season. ( March to mid june ) ♟️Rainy season ( mid - june to September)

*🛡️Trick to Remember ASEAN Countries :* Those who pass MBBS watch PTV and buy LIC policy. *💎Tricks:-* MBBS PTV LIC ♟️M- Malaysia ♟️B- Brunei ♟️B- Burma ♟️S- Singapore ♟️P- Phillipines ♟️T- Thailand ♟️V- Vietnam ♟️L- Laos ♟️I- Indonesia ♟️C- Cambodia ⭐Total= 10 countries

*🛡️Sangam Literature* ♟️The earliest literature of South India is represented by group of texts in old Tamil, often collectively referred to as Sangam literature. ♟️A tradition recorded in post-7th century texts speaks of three Sangams or literary gatherings in ancient times. ♟️The first is supposed to held in Madurai for 4,440 years, the second at Kapatapuram for 3,700 years, and the third in Madurai for 1,850 years. ♟️The Sangam corpus includes six of the eight anthologies of poems included in the Ettutokai (The Eight Collections), and nine of the ten pattus (songs) of the Pattuppattu (The Ten Songs). ♟️The style and certain historical references in the poems suggest that they were composed between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE. They were compiled into anthologies in about the mid-8th century. ♟️These anthologies were collected into the super-anthologies (i.e., anthologies of anthologies) called the Ettutokai and the Pattuppattu.

*🛡️Quit India Movement* ♟️The Quit India Movement also known as the August Movement, was a movement launched at the Bombay session of the All-India Congress Committee by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942, during World War II, demanding an end to British Rule of India. ♟️The Cripps Mission had failed, and Gandhi made a call to Do or Die in his Quit India speech, followed by the launch of a mass protest demanding what Gandhi called “An Orderly British Withdrawal” from India. ♟️Almost the entire leadership of the Indian National Congress was imprisoned without trial within hours of Gandhi’s speech. 💎 *Extent of Mass Participation* ♟️The participation was on many levels. ♟️Youth, especially the students of schools and colleges, remained in the forefront. ♟️Women, especially school and college girls, actively participated, and included Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kripalani and Usha Mehta. ♟️Workers went on strikes and faced repression. ♟️Peasants of all strata were at the heart of the movement. Even some zamindars participated. These peasants concentrated their offensive on symbols of authority and there was complete absence of anti-zamindar violence. ♟️Government officials, especially those belonging to lower levels in police and administration, participated resulting in erosion of government loyalty. ♟️Muslims helped by giving shelter to underground activists. There were no communal clashes during the movement. ♟️The Communists did not join the movement; in the wake of Russia (where the communists were in power) being attacked by Nazi Germany, the communists began to support the British war against Germany and the ‘Imperialist War’ became the ‘People’s War’ ♟️The Muslim League opposed the movement, fearing that if the British left India at that time, the minorities would be oppressed by the Hindus. ♟️The Hindu Mahasabha boycotted the movement. ♟️The Princely states showed a low-key response. 💎 *Lack of Unity* ♟️The British had the support of the Viceroy’s Council (which had a majority of Indians), of the All India Muslim League, the princely states, the Indian Imperial Police, the British Indian Army, the Hindu Mahasabha and the Indian Civil Service. ♟️Many Indian businessmen profiting from heavy wartime spending did NOT support the Quit India Movement. 💎 *Result* ♟️Due to various reasons including effective arrests (over 100,000 arrests were made) by the British and lack of unity, the Quit India campaign was effectively crushed. ♟️Many students paid more attention to Subhas Chandra Bose, who was in exile and supporting the Axis Powers. ♟️The only outside support came from the Americans, as President Franklin D. Roosevelt pressured Prime Minister Winston Churchill to give in to some of the Indian demands. ♟️The British refused to grant immediate independence, saying it could happen only after the war had ended.