NEET MBBS Notes Study PG UG PDF

Some Important Fungi: Yeast- used in fermentation to make cheese, bread, beer Penicillium- antibiotics source Puccinia- causes wheat rust Ustilago- causes smut disease Symbionts- Lichens (symbiotic association of fungi with algae), Mycorrhiza (symbiotic association of fungi with roots of green plants) Rhizopus- the bread mould Albugo- the parasitic fungi on mustard Neurospora- extensively used in genetic and biochemical work Truffles and Morels- edible and are considered a delicacy Agaricus- edible as well as poisonous species

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Blood Groups: ABO ✅ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens (chemicals that can induce immune response) on the RBCs namely A and B. ✅Similarly, the plasma of different individuals contain two natural antibodies (proteins produced in response to antigens). ✅ABO blood groups are controlled by the gene I. The plasma membrane of the red blood cells has sugar polymers that protrude from its surface and the kind of sugar is controlled by the gene. The gene (I) has three alleles IA, IB and i. ✅The alleles IA and IB produce a slightly different form of the sugar while allele i does not produce any sugar. ✅Because humans are diploid organisms, each person possesses any two of the three I gene alleles. ✅IA and IB are completely dominant over i, in other words when IA and i are present only IA expresses (because i does not produce any sugar), and when IB and i are present IB expresses. ✅But when IA and IB are present together they both express their own types of sugars: this is because of co-dominance. Hence red blood cells have both A and B types of sugars.

✅Very important points - Human Reproduction 🌟Uterus also called womb. 🌟 Longest unstripped muscles of the body are found in the walls of uterus. (During pregnancy) 🌟 Clitoris is a homologous to the penis in the male. 🌟 Bartholin Glands : It is homologous to Cowper's gland of male 🌟 A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all female mammals. 🌟 The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum which contains antibodies (IgA) absolutely essential to develop resistance for the new-born babies. ⚡️ Liberation of sperms from Sertoli cells of seminiferous tubules is called spermiation. ⚡️ Liberation of sperms from testes is called semination. ⚡️ Liberation of sperms from body of male is called ejaculation . ⚡️ Mammalian sperms are transfered to vagina of female by the process called insemination. ⚡️ In 1 ml of semen, 20 to 120 millions of sperms are present in human being. ⚡️ Leydig's cells mature at 10 yrs. of age. ⚡️ In humans (and most vertebrates), the first polar body does not undergo meiosis II. ⚡️ The first polar body is, therefore, formed merely to get rid of unwanted chromosomes. ⚡️ 65-74 days are required to complete the cycle of spermatogenesis in human being.

#GENETICS 🔘 MITOSIS 🔘 ✅The term mitosis was coined by Flemming in 1882. ✅Mitosis refers to the spindle using nuclear division which produces two identical daughter nuclei from the parent nucleus. ✅Mitosis results in formation of two daughter cells from a single mother cell. ✅Since mitosis occurs in somatic cells, and it leads to growth of vegetative parts. ✅It is also known as somatic cell division or equational division. ✅Segregation and recombination do not take place during mítosis. 🔘 Cell cycle 🔘 ✅The period in which one cycle of cell division is completed is called cell cycle. ✅It is divided in to Interphase, Mitosis and Cytokinesis. ☑️A. Interphase: It is the longest stage of cell cycle. Generally known as DNA synthesis phase. Further divided into three sub stages. ✅a.G1 It is pre-DNA replication phase. Protein & RNA synthesis takes place during this phase. ✅b. S-phase: The chromosome and DNA replications take place during this phase. ✅c. G2: Post-DNA replication phase. Protein and RNA synthesis occur during this phase. ✅B. Mitotic phase: 1. Prophase: Chromosomes look like thin thread and uncoiled in the early prophase and become short and condensed during late prophase. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear at the end of prophase. Prophase is the longest phase of mitosis. ✅2. Metaphase: Nucleolus disappear.The spindle tubes are formed and chromosomes are oriented in the centre at equatorial plate. Shortest and thickest state of chromosomes. Chromosomes are clearly visible at metaphase. ✅3. Anaphase Chromatids separate at the centromere and move towards opposite sides or pole. Chromosomes are most condensed at anaphase. It is the smallest stage of mitosis. ✅4. Telophase: Chromosomes teaches opposite sides. Nucleolus reappears during this phase. ✅C. Cytokinesis: The division of nucleus is known as karyokinesis. It is followed by division of cytoplasm, which is known as cytokinesis. Division of cytoplasm results in formation of two daughters cells.

✅ List of Micronutrients ➖ Iron: It is essential for energy transfer, nitrogen reduction, and fixation. Iron, along with sulfur, acts as a catalyst in the formation of other reactions. Yellow leaves are the symptom of Iron deficiency. ➖ Chlorine: It is the nutrient which helps in osmosis and ionic balance. It also plays a key role in the process of photosynthesis. Decreased resistance, reduced plant growth are the symptoms of chlorine deficiency. ➖ Manganese: It is essential for photosynthesis and nitrogen metabolism. Premature leaf drop and delayed maturity are the symptoms of manganese deficiency. Manganese is abundant in wet soils, whereas dry soil has limited manganese. ➖ Boron: It helps in the formation and strengthening of the cell walls. It helps in cell division, germination of pollen, flowering, and fruiting. Lack of boron can lead to reduced production of grains and seeds. ➖ Zinc: It is an essential element which helps in photosynthesis, energy production and regulation of growth. Zinc deficiency may cause slower maturity and reduction in the size of the leaf. Zinc deficiencies often occur during the cold, wet spring season. ➖ Copper: It is essential for proper photosynthesis, grain production and to the strengthening of a cell wall. Stunted growth, yellow leaves are the symptoms of copper deficiency. There will not be enough copper in many soils. ➖ Molybdenum: It is responsible for pollen formation. It is also responsible for nitrogen fixation. Reduced fruit or grain growth are the symptoms of Molybdenum deficiency. Sandy soils in the humid region are the places where zinc deficiencies are found.

❇️ Human Genetic Disorders ➡️Trick ➨ Alka sick thi Phenyl Pine Ce ⇒Alka – Alkaptonuria ⇒sick – Sickle Cell anaemia ⇒Thi – Thalassemia ⇒Phenyl – Phenylketonuria ⇒Ce – Cystic fibrosis

❇️ Parkinson’s disease signs and symptoms ➡️Trick ➨ SMART ⇒Shuffling gait ⇒Mask-like facies ⇒Akinesia ⇒Rigidity ⇒Tremor

❇️ Hormone Produced by Anterior Pituitary ➡️Trick ➨ Green Parrot Tickles And Make Fake Look ⇒Green – GH ⇒Parrot – Prolactin ⇒Tickles – TSH ⇒And – ACTH ⇒Make – MSH ⇒Fake – FSH ⇒Look – LH

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❖ Morphology Of Flowering Plants ➠ (#New💐) Share & React Below

Human reproduction

✅Enzyme Inhibitors and Types Short Notes 🔹 What is enzyme inhibitors? ➖ Enzyme Inhibitors reduce the rate of an enzyme on the substrate ➖ This effect may be permanent or temporary Types of Enzyme Inhibition 1. Competitive Inhibition 2. Noncompetitive Inhibition 3. Allosteric Inhibition I) Competitive Inhibition ➖ Inhibitor bind to active site of enzyme and block binding of the substrate ➖ Inhibitors have a similar shape to the substrate molecule ➖ Competitive Inhibition is usually temporary ➖ Level of inhibition depends on the relative concentrations of substrate II) Noncompetitive Inhibition ➖ Inhibitor doesn’t block the substrate from binding to the active site ➖ Inhibitor binding to a site other than the active site ➖ Binding of the inhibitor causes a conformational change to the enzyme’s active site ➖ As a result of this change, the active site and substrate no longer share specificity, meaning the substrate cannot bind ➖ As the inhibitor is not in direct competition with the substrate, increasing substrate levels cannot mitigate the inhibitor’s effect III) Allosteric Inhibition ➖ Alosteric means other site ➖ These enzymes have two receptor sites ➖ One site fits the substrate like other enzymes ➖ The other site fits an inhibitor ➖ Accumulation of the final product of the reaction is capable of inhibiting the step of reaction

❇️ Circulatory system ❇️ (a) Open type – In which the blood is pumped out of heart and the cells & tissues are directly bathed in it. e.g. Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms, Hemichordates and some lower Chordates like tunicates (b) Closed type – In which the blood is circulated through a series of vessels of varying diameters i.e. arteries, veins and blood capillaries e.g. Annelids, Cephalopod molluscs, Vertebrates etc