UPSC Aspirant 2025-26

The European Trading Companies: IGNOU With the discovery of the new sea-route via the Cape of Good Hope, the Eastern trade was thrown open to all the European nations. During this period, the Portuguese, Dutch, English and French merchant Companies established their factories in Africa and Asia. The European Companies were interested in gaining more and more concessions from the Indian rulers. Their desire to have monopoly over the Easterri trade brought them into conflict on the seas as well as on the land. In India, by the 1750's, ts, the English emerged victorious and cultivated designs to establish an Empire in India. The Portuguese, Dutch and English Companies were primarily merchant companies. However, the French East India Company was heavily dependent on the French government. All the European Companies had fortified factories in India. These factories served not only as warehouses but also were great repository of arms and armoury. In India, their chief was PresidenttGovernor. But all powers flowed from their parent country. The Dutch East India Company was directly answerable to Batavia which in turn was connected to the headquarters at Hague. These Companies tried to maintain good relations with the Mughals and other Indian rulers. But they combined the strategy of flattery, petition and gifts with the show of arms to gain strength. The Indian rulers were also interested in encouraging the establishment of European Companies for getting revenue through trade taxes. The European Companies found South India easy to penetrate and dictate their terms to weak Nayak and the Deccan rulers. But, throughout the 17th century, they found it often difficult to cow down the mighty Mughals. Any such attempts were well thwarted. However, as soon as the Central power showed signs of decadence, the European Companies, especially the English, succeeded in getting concessions at will.

To remember them ,see/ locate on map where they are , otherwise they cannot be memoriesed effectively .

Important Ports of the World: Havana - Cuba Jebel Ali- Dubai, United Arab Emirates  Rotterdam- The Netherlands Port Klang- Malaysia Antwerp - Belgium Hanshin Port- Japan Piraeus, Greece Algeciras, Spain Tripoli , Lebanon Abadan. Iran Source: NCERT 12th: Fundamentals of Human Geography, Chapter 9, Page no. 89

Most important things to cover in India's and world's map Rivers ,mountains, straits, national parks. Tropic of cancer,Capricorn ,equator Miiddle East region ,red sea,black sea surrounding countries ,ASEAN nation and there capital. Important volcanoes in news and there locations, Important grasslands of world , major ocean currents , forest types India and World Tribes in news and location,ramsar sites Movement from one state to another ( minimum number of states ) Islands in Indian Ocean region and Pacific Ocean region Major deserts of the world

Important Buddhist Mudras 1. . Dhyana Mudra-It is performed with the help of two hands which are placed on the lap and place the right hand on the left hand with stretched fingers (thumbs facing upwards and other fingers of both the hand resting on each other.) This is the characteristic gesture of Buddha Shakyamuni, Dhyani Buddha Amitabh and the Medicine Buddha. 2. Dharmachakra Mudra It is also called as the gesture of 'Teaching of the Wheel of Dharma' that describes one of the most important moments in the Buddha's life as he performed the Dharmachakra mudra in his first sermon in Sarnath after he attained enlightenment. It is performed with the help of both the hands which are held against the chest, the left-facing inward, covering the right facing outward. 3. Bhumisparsa Mudra This gesture is also known as “touching the Earth” which represents the moment of the Buddha's awakening as he claims the earth as the witness of his enlightenment. It is performed with the help of the right hand, which is held above the right knee, reaching toward the ground with the palm inward while touching the lotus throne. 4. Karna Mudra This gesture signifies the warding off evil which is performed by raising the index and the little finger and folding the other fingers. It helps in reducing sickness or negative thoughts. 5. Vitarka Mudra It signifies the discussion and transmission of the teachings of the Buddha. It is performed by joining the tips of the thumb and the index fingers together while keeping the other fingers straight, which is just like to Abhaya Mudra and varada mudra but in this Mudra the thumbs touching the index fingers. 6. Abhaya Mudra It is a gesture of fearlessness or blessing that represents the protection, peace, benevolence and dispelling of fear. It is performed with the help of right hand by raising to shoulder height with a bent arm and the face of the palm will be facing outward with fingers upright whereas the left hand hanging down while standing. This gesture is characteristic of Buddha Shakyamuni and Dhyani Buddha Amoghasiddhi. 7. Uttarbodhi Mudra This denotes the supreme enlightenment through connecting oneself with divine universal energy. It is performed with the help of both the hands, which are placed at the heart with the index fingers touching and pointing upwards and the remaining fingers intertwined. 8. Anjali Mudra It is also called 'Namaskara Mudra' or ‘Hridayanjali Mudra' that represents the gesture of greeting, prayer and adoration. It is performed by pressing the palms of the hands together in which the hands are held at the heart chakra with thumbs resting lightly against the sternum.