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HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY — NSEB QUICK REVISION

1. DIGESTION MOUTH • Salivary amylase → Starch digestion STOMACH • HCl → Acidic pH + activates pepsin • Pepsin → Protein digestion • Gastrin → Stimulates gastric secretion SMALL INTESTINE • Bile → Fat emulsification • Pancreatic enzymes → Major chemical digestion • Secretin → ↑ Bicarbonate secretion • CCK → ↑ Pancreatic enzymes + gallbladder contraction • Villi → Absorption 🔥 MOST digestion + absorption → Small intestine Glucose + amino acids → Blood Fat products → Lacteals → Lymph 2. RESPIRATION Gas exchange → ALVEOLI O2: Alveoli → Blood → Tissues CO2: Tissues → Blood → Alveoli 📌 O2 transport: Mostly haemoglobin-bound 📌 CO2 transport: Mostly as HCO3− 🔥 Gas exchange → Diffusion BOHR EFFECT: ↑ CO2 / ↓ pH → ↓ Hb affinity for O2 → More O2 released to tissues ⭐ Left shift → Higher O2 affinity ⭐ Right shift → Lower O2 affinity 3. CIRCULATION Human circulation → DOUBLE CIRCULATION Pulmonary: Heart → Lungs → Heart Systemic: Heart → Body → Heart BLOOD FLOW: RA → RV → Pulmonary artery → Lungs → Pulmonary veins → LA → LV → Aorta → Body 🔸 Pulmonary artery → Deoxygenated 🔸 Pulmonary vein → Oxygenated ▪️ Valves → Prevent backflow 4. CARDIAC CYCLE Atrial systole → Ventricular systole → Diastole ▪️ Systole → Contraction ▪️ Diastole → Relaxation Heart sounds: LUB → AV valves close DUB → Semilunar valves close ECG: P wave → Atrial depolarisation QRS → Ventricular depolarisation T wave → Ventricular repolarisation 5. EXCRETION Functional unit → NEPHRON Urine formation: FILTRATION → REABSORPTION → SECRETION Glomerulus → Filtration PCT → Major reabsorption Loop of Henle → Establishes medullary osmotic gradient DCT + Collecting duct → Fine regulation 🔥 ADH: ↑ Water reabsorption → Concentrated urine 🔥 Aldosterone: ↑ Na+ reabsorption ↑ K+ secretion 6. COUNTER-CURRENT MECHANISM Loop of Henle + Vasa recta help maintain the medullary osmotic gradient. Descending limb: → Highly permeable to water Ascending limb: → Impermeable to water → NaCl movement out ⭐ Key idea: Descending → Water OUT Ascending → Salt OUT 7. RAAS ↓ Blood pressure / ↓ renal perfusion ↓ Renin ↓ Angiotensin I ↓ Angiotensin II ↓ Aldosterone ↓ ↑ Na+ + Water reabsorption ↓ ↑ Blood volume / Blood pressure 🔥 Angiotensin II → Vasoconstriction + stimulates aldosterone release 8. NERVOUS SYSTEM 🧠 Functional unit → NEURON Dendrite → Cell body → Axon RESTING MEMBRANE: Inside is relatively negative. ACTION POTENTIAL: Threshold reached ↓ Na+ channels open ↓ Depolarisation ↓ Na+ channels inactivate ↓ K+ channels open ↓ Repolarisation 🔥 Refractory period → Limits immediate re-excitation and helps ensure one-way propagation. 9. SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION ⚡ Action potential ↓ Ca2+ enters axon terminal ↓ Neurotransmitter release ↓ Synaptic cleft ↓ Postsynaptic receptor ↓ Response 🔥 Chemical synapse → Usually one-way transmission 🔥 Ca2+ entry triggers neurotransmitter release. ⚡ NSEB MUST-REMEMBER 🔺 Gastrin → Gastric secretion 🔺 Secretin → Bicarbonate 🔺 CCK → Pancreatic enzymes + gallbladder contraction 🔺 BOHR EFFECT: ↑ CO2 / ↓ pH → O2 release ↑ 🔺 P wave → Atrial depolarisation 🔺 QRS → Ventricular depolarisation 🔺 T wave → Ventricular repolarisation 🔺 PCT → Major reabsorption 🔺 ADH → Water reabsorption ↑ 🔺 Aldosterone → Na+ reabsorption ↑ 🔺 Depolarisation → Na+ IN 🔄 Repolarisation → K+ OUT Synapse → Ca2+-dependent neurotransmitter release 🎯 GOLDEN RULE ▫️DIGESTION → BREAK + ABSORB ▫️RESPIRATION → EXCHANGE + GAS TRANSPORT ▫️CIRCULATION → PUMP + TRANSPORT ▫️EXCRETION → FILTER + REGULATE ▫️NERVOUS SYSTEM → RECEIVE + TRANSMIT + RESPOND

Order Of an Integer Modulo n Quick Revision! All the important rules in one-page notes 📝🔥 Save it. Revise it. Ace it! 🚀 #Maths #Geometry #OlympiadPreparation

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LTE : Lifting The Exponent Quick Revision! All the important rules in one-page notes 📝🔥 Save it. Revise it. Ace it! 🚀 #Maths #Geometry #OlympiadPreparation

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🧬 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY — NSEB QUICK REVISION 1. DIGESTION Mouth: • Amylase → Starch Stomach: • HCl → Activates pepsin • Pepsin → Proteins Small Intestine: • Bile → Fat emulsification • Pancreatic enzymes → Major digestion 🔥 Most digestion + absorption → SMALL INTESTINE Glucose + amino acids → Blood Fat products → Lacteals 2. RESPIRATION 🫁 Gas exchange → ALVEOLI O2: Alveoli → Blood → Tissues CO2: Tissues → Blood → Alveoli O2 transport → Mainly haemoglobin CO2 transport → Mainly HCO3− 3. CIRCULATION ❤️ Human circulation → DOUBLE CIRCULATION Pulmonary: Heart → Lungs → Heart Systemic: Heart → Body → Heart 🔥 Important: Pulmonary artery → Deoxygenated blood Pulmonary vein → Oxygenated blood Blood flow: RA → RV → Lungs → LA → LV → Body Valves → Prevent backflow 4. EXCRETION 🧪 Functional unit → NEPHRON Urine formation: Filtration → Reabsorption → Secretion Glomerulus → Filtration PCT → Major reabsorption Loop of Henle → Urine concentration ADH → ↑ Water reabsorption 5. NERVOUS SYSTEM 🧠 Functional unit → NEURON Dendrite → Cell body → Axon Action potential: Depolarisation → Na+ enters Repolarisation → K+ exits Synapse: Action potential → Ca2+ entry → Neurotransmitter release → Next neuron ⚡ NSEB MUST-REMEMBER 🍽️ Small intestine → Major digestion + absorption 🫁 Alveoli → Gas exchange ❤️ Human → Double circulation 🩸 Pulmonary artery → Deoxygenated 🩸 Pulmonary vein → Oxygenated 🧪 Nephron → Kidney functional unit 💧 ADH → Water reabsorption ⚡ Depolarisation → Na+ IN 🔄 Repolarisation → K+ OUT 🧠 Neuron → Functional unit of nervous system 🎯 GOLDEN RULE: DIGESTION → ABSORB RESPIRATION → EXCHANGE CIRCULATION → TRANSPORT EXCRETION → REMOVE NERVOUS SYSTEM → SIGNAL

Valuation Method Quick Revision! All the important rules in one-page notes 📝🔥 Save it. Revise it. Ace it! 🚀 #Maths #Geometry #OlympiadPreparation

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Infinite Descent ( Number Theory)— Quick Revision! All the important rules in one-page notes 📝🔥 Save it. Revise it. Ace it! 🚀 #Maths #Geometry #OlympiadPreparation

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⚛️ CHEMICAL BONDING — OLYMPIAD QUICK REVISION

1. LEWIS STRUCTURE 📌 Count total valence electrons → make bonds → complete octets. 🔥 Formal Charge: FC = V − N − B/2 ⚠️ Octet exceptions: • BF3 → incomplete octet • NO → odd electron • SF6 → expanded octet 2. VSEPR THEORY Electron pairs repel and arrange to minimise repulsion. 🔥 Repulsion: LP-LP > LP-BP > BP-BP 📌 Common shapes: AX2 → Linear → 180° AX3 → Trigonal planar → 120° AX4 → Tetrahedral → 109.5° AX3E → Trigonal pyramidal AX2E2 → Bent AX5 → Trigonal bipyramidal AX6 → Octahedral 3. HYBRIDISATION Steric Number = σ bonds + lone pairs SN 2 → sp SN 3 → sp² SN 4 → sp³ SN 5 → sp³d SN 6 → sp³d² 🔥 Multiple bond = ONE electron domain. 4. SIGMA & PI BONDS Single → 1σ Double → 1σ + 1π Triple → 1σ + 2π ⭐ Every covalent bond contains ONE σ bond. 5. MOT — MOLECULAR ORBITAL THEORY Bonding MO → Lower energy → Stabilising Antibonding MO → Higher energy → Destabilising 🔥 Bond Order: BO = ½(Bonding e⁻ − Antibonding e⁻) Higher BO → • Stronger bond • Shorter bond • Higher bond energy 6. MAGNETIC NATURE Unpaired electrons → PARAMAGNETIC All electrons paired → DIAMAGNETIC ⭐ O2: BO = 2 2 unpaired electrons → PARAMAGNETIC 🔥 7. BOND PARAMETERS Higher bond order: ↑ Bond strength ↑ Bond energy ↓ Bond length Therefore: C≡C > C=C > C-C in bond strength. 8. DIPOLE MOMENT μ = q × r Molecular dipole moment = VECTOR SUM of bond dipoles. ⚠️ Polar bonds ≠ necessarily polar molecule. Example: CO2 → polar bonds but overall NON-POLAR. ⚡ OLYMPIAD MUST-REMEMBER FC = V − N − B/2 LP-LP > LP-BP > BP-BP SN = σ bonds + lone pairs SN 2 → sp SN 3 → sp² SN 4 → sp³ SN 5 → sp³d SN 6 → sp³d² Single → 1σ Double → 1σ + 1π Triple → 1σ + 2π BO = ½(Bonding e⁻ − Antibonding e⁻) Higher BO → Shorter + Stronger bond O2 → Paramagnetic 🎯 GOLDEN RULE: LEWIS → ELECTRONS VSEPR → SHAPE HYBRIDISATION → ORBITALS MOT → BOND ORDER + MAGNETISM

External Principle — Quick Revision! All the important rules in one-page notes 📝🔥 Save it. Revise it. Ace it! 🚀 #Maths #Geometry #OlympiadPreparation

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