NEET MBBS Notes Study PG UG PDF

💠Terminologies in Progressive Wave Motion💠 ➖Amplitude ➖Period ➖Wavelength ➖Frequency ➖Wave velocity ➖Phase or phase angle (O) ➖Phase difference ➖Path difference ➖Time difference 🔹Amplitude (A): The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of any particle of the medium from its equilibrium position. 🔹Period (T): Period (T) of a wave is the time taken by any particle of the medium to complete one vibration during a period (T). 🔹Wavelength (λ): Wavelength (λ) is equal to the distance between two consecutive particles of the medium which are in the same state of vibration it is equal to the distance travelled by the wave by its time period (T). 🔹Frequency (f): It is the number of vibrations made per second by any particles of the medium (f = 1/T). Since the frequency of a wave is a characteristic property of the source which is producing the wave motion, hence, the frequency of a wave does not change when a wave travels from one medium to another medium. 🔹Phase or Phase Angle (Φ): It represents the state of vibration of the particle of a medium with respect to its mean position. 🔹Phase Difference Δ(Φ): It represents the different state of vibration of a particle at two different instants (or) any pair of particles at the same instant. ΔΦ = Φ2 – Φ1. Wave Velocity (v): It is the distance travelled by the wave in one second (v = λ/T). It is determined by the mechanical properties of the medium through which the wave propagates. The velocity of wave motion is measured with respect to the medium, the wave velocity changes when the medium is in motion i.e. speed of sound through air changes when the wind is blowing. ⇒ Check: Sound Waves There are two velocities associated with a wave. One is the wave velocity and the other one is particle velocity (which is the speed with which the particle of the medium vibrate when the wave passes through the medium). 🔹Path Difference (Δx) or (x): It indicates the distance between two points measured along the direction of propagation of the wave through the medium. 🔹Time Difference (ΔT): It indicates the time taken by the wave to travel from one point to another through the medium. 🎖Click Here To Join Our Main Channel🎖

Trick to Remember Some bi-carboxylic acid 🌟1.Oxalic acid- 0 carbon- Oh 🌟2.Maleic acid- 1 carbon- My 🌟3.Succinic acid- 2 carbon- Sun 🌟4.Glutamic acid-3 carbon- Go 🌟5.Adipic acid- 4 carbon- And 🌟6.Palmitic acid- 5 carbon- play Number of carbons refers number of -CH2 group between two COOH group. For e.g HOOC-COOH (OXALIC ACID) there is no CH2 group between carboxyl. Maleic acid is HOOC-CH2-COOH there is one CH2 group in betwen. This is how you can remember some bi-carboxylic acid. 🎖Click Here To Join Our Main Channel 🎖

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🔰Carbon and its Compounds🔰 ✍️ Introduction ➖Carbon plays very important roles for all living beings. ➖The amount of carbon in the earth’s crust is merely 0.02%, which is available in the form of minerals such as carbonates, hydrogen-carbonates, coal, and petroleum. ➖The presence of carbon in the atmosphere of the earth is 0.03%, in the form of carbon dioxide. ✍️ Compounds of Carbon ➖Almost all carbon compounds (except a few) are poor conductors of the electricity. ➖The diamond and graphite both are formed by carbon atoms; however, the difference lies between them in the manner in which the carbon atoms are bonded to one another. ➖In diamond, each atom of the carbon, is bonded to four other carbon atoms and form a rigid three-dimensional structure. ➖In graphite, each atom of the carbon, is bonded to three other carbon atoms in the same plane, which gives a hexagonal array. ➖There is also difference in some physical structure of diamond and graphite. ➖Diamond is the hardest substance known whereas graphite is smooth and slippery substance. ➖Graphite is good conductor of electricity whereas diamond is not. ➖The compounds, which has identical molecular formula, but different structures, are known as structural isomers. ➖The saturated hydrocarbons are known as alkanes. ➖The unsaturated hydrocarbons, which comprise of one or more double bonds, are known as alkenes. ➖The unsaturated hydrocarbons, which comprise of one or more triple bonds, are known as alkynes. ✍️ Use of Alcohol as Fuel ➖Sugarcane plants very efficient convert sunlight into chemical energy and its juice can be used to prepare molasses. ➖When molasses is fermented, it produces alcohol (ethanol). ➖Some of the countries now using alcohol as an additive in petrol, as it is a cleaner fuel. ➖These alcohol, on burning in sufficient air (oxygen), gives rise to only carbon dioxide and water. ✍️ Esters ➖Esters are sweet-smelling substances, which are most commonly formed by reaction of an acid and an alcohol. ➖When esters react in the presence of an acid or a base, it gives back the alcohol and carboxylic acid. ➖The reaction of esters with an acid or a base, is known as saponification because it is used in the preparation of soap. ➖The molecules of soap normally are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids. ➖Interestingly, the ionic-end of soap dissolves in water whereas the carbon chain dissolves in oil. This typical features of the soap molecules forms structures known as micelles. ➖In micelles, one end of the molecules is towards the oil droplet whereas the ionic-end remains outside. ➖The soap micelle helps in dissolving the dirt in water; likewise, the clothes get cleaned. ➖On the other hand, detergents are usually ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain carboxylic acids, which remain effective even in hard water. ➖Detergents are customarily used to make shampoos and some other products for cleaning clothes. 🎖Click Here To Join Our Main Channel 🎖

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♻️ Important Notes - Electrochemical Cells ♻️ ► An electrochemical cell can convert electrical energy to chemical energy and can also convert electrical energy to chemical energy. There are two types of electrochemical cells- Galvanic cell and Electrolytic cell. ► Cathodes are usually metal electrodes. It is the electrode where reduction takes place. The cathode is the positive electrode in a galvanic cell and a negative electrode in an electrolytic cell. Electrons move into the cathode. ► A half-cell is half of an electrochemical cell (electrolytic or galvanic), where either oxidation or reduction occurs. At equilibrium, there is no transfer of electrons across the half cells. Therefore, the potential difference between them is nil. ► A salt bridge is a device used to connect the oxidation and reduction half-cells of a galvanic cell (a type of electrochemical cell). Strong electrolytes are generally used to make the salt bridges in electrochemical cells. Since ZnSO4 is not a strong electrolyte, it is not used to make salt bridges. ► Emf of a cell is equal to the maximum potential difference across its electrodes, which occurs when no current is drawn through the cell. It can also be defined as the net voltage between the oxidation and reduction half-reactions. ► Cell potential is an intensive property as it is independent of the amount of material present. Gibbs free energy is defined for an electrochemical cell and is an extensive property as it depends on the quantity of the material. ► Electrode potential is the tendency of an electrode to accept or to lose electrons. Electrode potential depends on the nature of the electrode, temperature of the solution and the concentration of metal ions in the solution. It doesn’t depend on the size of the electrode. ► The salt bridge connects the two half-cell solutions to complete the circuit of the electrochemical cell. The electrolytes of the salt bridge are generally prepared in agar-agar or gelatin so that the electrolytes are kept in a semi-solid phase and do not mix with the half-cell solutions and interfere with the electrochemical reaction. ► A salt bridge is a junction that connects the anodic and cathodic compartments in a cell or electrolytic solution. It maintains electrical neutrality within the internal circuit, preventing the cell from rapidly running its reaction to equilibrium. ► A Voltaic or Galvanic cell is a type of electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Photovoltaic cells are used to convert light energy into electrical energy. An Electrolytic cell is a type of electrochemical cell that converts electrical energy into chemical energy. A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel and an oxidizing agent into electricity. ► For all spontaneous chemical reactions, the change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG°) is always negative. For a spontaneous reaction in an electrolytic cell, the cell potential (E°cell) should be positive. ► In an electrochemical cell, when an opposing externally potential is applied and increased slowly, the reaction continues to take place. When the external potential is equal to the potential of the cell, the reaction stops. Once the externally applied potential is greater than the potential of the cell, the reaction goes in the opposite direction and the cell behaves like an electrolytic cell. ► Primary cells cannot be used again and again. Since there is no fluid inside, these cells are also known as dry cells. The internal resistance is high and the chemical reaction is irreversible. Their initial cost is cheap. ► A secondary battery (a series of cells) is one which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times. Nickel-cadmium cell, Lead storage cell and Mercury cell are examples of secondary cells. Leclanche cell is an example of a primary cell. 🎖Click Here To Join Our Main Channel 🎖