UPSC Materials Notes

🛡️ *Government Securities (G-Sec)* ♟️A Tradable instrument issued by the Central Government or the State Governments. ♟️A G-Sec is a type of debt instrument issued by the government to borrow money from the public to finance its Fiscal Deficit. *💎Kinds* ♟️ *Short* Term (usually called treasury bills, with original maturities of less than one year ♟️ *Long* Term (usually called Government bonds or dated securities with original maturity of one year or more) 💎 *Issuer* ♟️Central Government - issues both, treasury bills & bonds or dated securities ♟️State Government - Only bonds or dated securities [State Development Loans (SDLs)] ♟️G-Secs carry practically no risk of default and, hence, are called risk-free gilt-edged instruments. ♟️ *Issue Mechanism* The RBI conducts Open Market Operations (OMOs) for sale or purchase of G-secs to adjust money supply conditions.

*🛡️Public Accounts Committee(PAC)* ♟️It is a financial parliamentary committee. ♟️It was set up first in 1921 under Government of India act 1919. ♟️It consists of 22 members (15-Lok Sabha , 7- Rajya Sabha). A minister cannot be its member. ♟️The term of office of the members is one year. The members are elected by the Parliament every  year from amongst its members. ♟️Its chairman is appointed by Speaker of LS. *💎FUNCTION :* ♟️To examine the annual audit reports of the CAG. CAG acts as a guide, friend, philosopher of the committee. *💎Limitations :* ♟️It is not concerned with the questions of policy in broader sense. ♟️Its recommendations are advisory and not binding on the ministries. ♟️It conducts a post-mortem examination of accounts.

🛡️ *Evolution of Civil services in India* ♟️1. Cornwallis ( 1786-93) first to organise . ♟️ 2. Wellesley ( 1798-1805) A. Fort William college for new recruits B. 1806- Disapproved ( by Court of Directors) C. East India College at Haileybury in England ♟️3. 1853- Open competition ♟️4. Indian Civil Service Act, 1861: A. Age: 23 (1859), 22 ( 1860), 21 ( 1866), 19 ( 1878) B. 1863- Satyendra Nath Tagore became first Indian to qualify ♟️5. Statutory civil service (1878-79: Lytton) A. 1/6th covenanted post to Indians through nominations ( system failed and abolished) ♟️6. Aitchison Committee on Public Services ( 1886) - Dufferin A. Drop covenanted and uncovenanted B. Imperial Indian Civil service ( Exam- England), Provincial Civil Service ( exam- India), Subordinate Civil Service ( Exam- India) C. Raising Age limit to 23 ♟️7. Montford Reforms 1919: A. 1/3rd recruitment in India itself- to be raised annually by 1.5% ♟️8. Lee Commission 1924: A. Direct recruit. To ICS on basis of 50:50 parity to be reached in 15 yrs B. Public Service Commission to be established ( as laid in GoI Act,1919) ♟️9. GoI Act, 1935: A. Establishment of Federal Public Service Commission and Provincial Public Service Commission.

*🛡️Tidal Flooding* ♟️Tidal flooding, also known as “nuisance flooding” or “sunny day flooding,” happens when high tides cause water levels to rise and flood low-lying coastal areas.  *♟️Causes* Changes in prevailing winds, shifts in ocean currents, and strong tidal forces (which occur during full or new moon) can all cause high tide flooding. ♟️High tide flooding falls into three levels of severity: minor, moderate, and major.  *💎Concerns* ♟️Tidal flooding disrupts daily life by flooding roads and services, damages infrastructure, and causes economic losses for businesses.  ♟️It accelerates coastal erosion, harms habitats, and contaminates freshwater supplies with saltwater.  ♟️Repeated flooding forces communities to relocate.  ♟️Over time, rising sea levels due to climate change will make tidal flooding more frequent and severe.

*🛡️LEADER OF THE HOUSE OF THE OPPOSITION* ♟️In each House of Parliament, there is the ‘Leader of the Opposition’. The leader of the largest Opposition party having not less than one-tenth seats of the total strength of the House is recognised as the leader of the Opposition in that House. ♟️In a parliamentary system of government, the leader of the opposition has a significant role to play. His main functions are to provide a constructive criticism of the policies of the government and to provide an alternative government. Therefore, the leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha were accorded statutory recognition in 1977. ♟️They are also entitled to the salary, allowances and other facilities equivalent to that of a cabinet minister. ♟️It was in 1969 that an official leader of the opposition was recognised for the first time. The same functionary in USA is known as the ‘minority leader’.

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