UPSC GEOGRAPHY

■ FORMATION OF COAL. #Economicgeography ◇ Most of the world’s coal was formed in Carboniferous age (350 million years ago.) ◇ Name Carboniferous refers to coal-bearing strata. ◇ Coal formed millions of years ago when the earth was covered with huge swampy (marshy) forests. ◇ As plants grew, some died and fell into the swamp waters. ◇ New plants grew up to take their places and when these died more grew. ◇ In time, there was thick layer of dead plants rotting in the swamp. ◇ Surface of the earth changed, and water and dirt washed in, stopping the decaying process. ◇ More plants grew up, but they too died and fell, forming separate layers. ◇ After millions of years many layers had formed, one on top of the other. ◇ Weight of the top layers and the water and dirt packed down the lower layers of plant matter. ◇ Heat and pressure produced chemical and physical changes in the plant layers which forced out oxygen and left rich carbon deposits. In time, material that had been plants became coal.

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■ BLACK SOIL. #Soil ◇ The parent material for most of the black soil are the volcanic rocks that were formed in the Deccan Plateau. ◇ In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schists form the parent material. The former are sufficiently deep while the later are generally shallow. ◇ These are the region of high temperature and low rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil group typical to the dry and hot regions of the Peninsula. ◇ A typical black soil is highly argillaceous (containing clay) with a large clay factor, 62 per cent or more. • In general, black soils of uplands are of low fertility while those in the valleys are very fertile. ◇ The black soil is highly retentive of moisture. ◇ It swells greatly on accumulating moisture. ◇ In the rainy season, the soil gets very sticky and hence ploughing, and other agricultural activities demand more effort. ◇ In summer, the moisture evaporates the soil shrinks and is seamed with broad and deep cracks.

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■ ALLUVIAL SOIL #Soil ◇ Alluvial soils are formed mainly due to silt deposited by Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra rivers. ◇ In coastal regions, some alluvial deposits are formed due to wave action. ◇ Rocks of the Himalayas form the parent material. ◇ They are the largest soil group covering about 15 lakh sq km or about 45.6 per cent of the total area. ◇ They support more than 40% of India’s population by providing the most productive agricultural lands. □ CHARACTERSTICS OF ALLUVIAL SOIL. ◇ They are immature and have weak profiles due to their recent origin. ◇ Most of the soil is loamy. Sandy and clayey soils are not uncommon. ◇ Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare. ◇ Kankar (calcareous concretions) beds are present in some regions along the river terraces. ◇ The soil is porous because of its loamy (equal proportion of sand and clay) nature. ◇ Porosity and texture provide good drainage and other conditions favourable for agriculture. ◇ These soils are replenished by the recurrent floods

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■ FACTORS AFFECT SOIL FORMATION IN INDIA. #Soil 3. CLIMATE. ◇ Temperature and rainfall are the most important factors in soil formation. ◇ They determine the effectiveness of weathering of the parent material, the quantity of water seeping through the soil and the type of micro-organisms present therein. ◇ Two different parent materials may develop the same soil in the same type of climate.

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■ FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION IN INDIA. #Soil 2. RELIEF ◇ The relief is the most important factor for soil formation in places with steep slopes like the hilly regions, edges of plateaus etc. ◇ Soil erosion on barren slopes is rampant, and it hinders soil formation. Example: Chambal ravines, higher reaches of the Himalayas where there is minimal or no forest cover (most on the steep southern slopes) etc. ◇ The areas of low relief or gentle slope generally experience deposition and have deep soils. Example: Indo Gangetic plain. ◇ The exceptions in the plateau are river basins where the soil layers are sufficiently deep. ▪︎SOURCE - D.R. Khullar (Chapter - 7).

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■ FACTORS AFFECT SOIL FORMATION IN INDIA. #Soil 1. PARENT MATERIAL. ◇ The rocks from which soils are formed are called parent materials. ◇ In most of the cases, the parent material determines the colouration, mineral composition and texture of the soil. ◇ In some cases, the soil formed may or may not have the same physical properties as the parent rock. ◇ Climatic factors induce chemical changes which also affect the physical properties of the soil. ◇ The surface rocks are exposed to the process of weathering. In this process, the rocks are converted into fine grains and provide a base for the soil formation. ◇ In Indian Conditions, parent material is generally categorized into :- 1. Ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks. 2. Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks. 3. Gondwana rocks. 4. Deccan basalts. 5. Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of extra peninsular India {Rock System}.

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■ ALPINE FORESTS. #Naturalvegetation ◇ Altitudes ranging from 2,900 to 3,500. ◇ These forests can be divided into (1) sub-alpine; (2) moist alpine scrub and (3) dry alpine scrub. ◇ The sub-alpine forests occur as lower alpine scrub and grasslands. ◇ It is a mixture of coniferous and broad-leaved trees in which the coniferous trees attain a height of about 30 m while the broad-leaved trees reach only 10 m. ◇ Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are important species. ◇ The moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen dense growth of rhododendron, birch etc. which occurs from 3,000 metres and extends up to snowline. ◇ The dry alpine scrub is the uppermost limit of scrub xerophytic, dwarf shrubs, over 3,500 metres above sea level and found in the dry zone. Juniper, honeysuckle, artemesia etc. are important species.

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